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After a harrowing three days of being held hostage by Chechen fighters, the Russian theatre victims remain hostage, but to a different enemy. Their own government! Having spent a traumatic four and a half hours caught in cross-fire and unknown gas, the Russian hostages were taken to various Moscow hospitals where they have been held without release.
The hostage death toll, which was originally maintained to be 67, was later revised to 90. Causes of death remain unknown.
The Russian government has maintained a high level of secrecy surrounding the type of gas used prior to the invasion of the theatre by Russian special forces, simply referring to the gas as a “special substance.”
The Russian special forces stormed the theatre after pumping the gas via ventilation shafts supposedly to incapacitate the Chechens. Hostages, however, were also incapacitated in the process leaving many hostages unconscious with breathing problems and memory loss.
Although Russian Deputy Interior Minister, Vladimir Vasilyev, had said that none of the hostages had died from the gas, a report on Moscow radio had quoted doctors as saying that some hostages may have died as a result of choking on their own vomitus after breathing the gaseous fumes.
Vasilyev reported to the press that nine hostages had died from heart problems, shock, or lack of medicine, but the authorities have failed to provide a reasonable answer as to the cause of death of the remaining hostages.
40 patients at least remain unconscious in hospital.
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Hostages were killed by mysterious gas.
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The Dutch Foreign Ministry reported that one of its nationals caught up in the crisis had died as a result of inhaling the poisonous gas. A Kazakh official also reported to MSNBC.com that a 13-year old Kazakh girl had died Saturday after being admitted to hospital following the rescue.
The BBC reports that panic was raised in the auditorium when the hostages started noticing the gas being pumped in.
Speculation continues as to the type of gas used. Lev Fyodorov, a scientist who once worked on Soviet chemical weapons stated on Russian TV that, “they couldn’t feel it, because such gas has no smell.”
Experts have speculated that the gas may have contained Valium, LSD, or the hallucinogenic gas known as BZ. The Soviet Union is reported to have used similar agents in its war against Afghanistan in the 1980s.
Psychochemicals as Incapacitants
In a report by the Federation of American Scientists (FAS), incapacitating agents are referred to as psychochemicals. Psychochemicals include hallucinogenic compounds such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), 3-quinuclidinyl benzilate (BZ), and benactyzine. These agents alter the nervous system, thereby causing visual and aural hallucinations, a sense of unreality, and changes in the thought processes and behavior. Psychochemicals are generally characterized by a slightly delayed onset of symptoms and by persistence of symptoms for a period greatly exceeding exposure time.
Psychochemicals can incapacitate both military and civilian personnel for a relatively short period of time. There is one major drawback, however. The effects of many of these agents are unpredictable ranging from overwhelming fear and panic to belligerence in which exposed personnel attack with no regard for personal safety.
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Mental incapacitants are predominantly glycolates, whereas some of the more potent candidates for physical incapacitants have come from research on improved anesthetics. Indeed, almost all potential incapacitants are byproducts of the pharmaceutical industry and have legitimate pharmaceutical uses. The defining technologies for such incapacitating weapons are thus the production of a physiologically effective compound in greater than practical pharmaceutical quantities and incorporation of the material in weapons. It is probable that the physical state of an incapacitant will be a particulate solid and that the practical route for effective use is by inhalation.
Exposure to BZ Gas
BZ (3-quinuclidinyl benzilate), disseminated in aerosol form, enters the body via the respiratory system. The basic signs of acute exposure are increased heart and respiratory rates, pupil dilation (involving contraction of the dilator muscles), paralysis of eye muscles used for near focusing, dryness of skin and mouth, elevated body temperature, impaired coordination, flushing of skin, hallucinations, stupor, forgetfulness and confusion. Within 15 minutes and up to 4 hours after exposure, the principal effects are dizziness, dry mouth, and elevated heart rate. These are followed by restlessness, involuntary muscle movements, rear vision difficulty, and total incapacitation. The final symptoms occur 6-10 hours later and are listed as "psychotropic in nature." Full recovery is expected after 4 days.
The chief antidote for BZ is physostigmine, an anticholinergic inhibitor that reversibly binds to and inactivates anticholinesterase, usually administered via intravenous administration at 15-60 ug/kg.
The first stage of BZ incapacitation, which lasts up to 4 hours, is characterized by feelings of discomfort and apprehension, manifested through extreme restlessness, muscle spasms in the extremities, and "bird-like flapping of the arms". The second stage lasting from 4 to 12 hours is marked by a sedated, stuporous inactivity. Individuals may sleep or appear to sleep and respond only to forceful stimulation, and alternatively may grope or crawl spontaneously after periods of lying still. The most extreme effects occur 12 hours after exposure: hallucinations take over individual perception and real events and objects are either ignored or grossly misinterpreted. Complex paranormal hallucinations continue 24 to 48 hours after exposure, which can be merely amusing or intensely frightening. Attempts to converse with people not actually present can occur, and vertical objects can be misinterpreted for people.
The incapacitant dubbed Agent-15 may also have been the gas used in Moscow. Agent-15 is a glycolate similar in effect to BZ. Exposure to about 100 milligrams of Agent-15 in aerosol form is sufficient to incapacitate. Symptoms, which begin within 30 minutes of exposure and may last for several days, include dizziness, vomiting, confusion, stupor, hallucinations, and irrational behavior.
BZ Use by Foreign Powers
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Female hostage-taker killed by gas.
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In a paper presented by Berkley University, BZ is said to have been produced in large quantities by the United States military in the 1960s. Military records reveal that in 1962 alone, $2 million were allocated to the construction of a facility designed exclusively for weaponizing conventional bombs with BZ. Between 1962 and 1964, over 100,000 pounds of the chemical were produced solely for that purpose. With the incapacitating dose (ICt50) of BZ at 110 mg-min/m3, which translates to an effective respiratory dose of about 2 milligrams, the sheer quantity of BZ production reveals the considerable potential of its intended use. Still, in comparison to other chemical agents stockpiled in the US arsenal such as nerve and blister agents, the quantities of BZ were relatively small.
A direct allegation that BZ was deployed in Vietnam was voiced by journalist Pierre Darcourt in France's prominent news magazine L'Express. Darcourt alleged that an offensive involving the 1st Airmobile Division in March 1966 during Operation "White Wing" dropped hand grenades filled with BZ on a force 350-500 Vietcong guerrillas, leaving only 100 survivors. U.S. officials subsequently denied any involvement, and in support of that denial, the Army Chemical Reference Handbooks from January 1970 indicate that BZ was mounted only on 750 pound cluster bombs and field dispensers, not hand grenades. However, other references do indicate that BZ was available in small grenade-like 10-pound bombs that may have been described by Darcourt as grenades. It is also plausible however that covert munitions were stockpiled as well, including BZ in grenade form, as many covert operations took place during the Vietnam War with no official records or lasting documentation.
While BZ is no longer a part of the US military chemical arsenal, as late as 1986 bombs filled with BZ were stored at the Pine Bluff Arsenal and were still awaiting destruction. Surprisingly, BZ is readily available today from many chemical supply companies and can be easily ordered over the Internet.
Evidence that an incapacitating agent was used against Bosnians fleeing Srebnica during the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina was documented in 1995. More specific sources suggest that this may have been BZ or a similar compound. Survivors describe an attack by Bosnian Serbs under the command of General Ratko Mladi in which mortars left unusual lingering clouds of multicolored gases hovering over the refugees. Some of the marchers began to hallucinate and behave irrationally, a few allegedly killed friends or themselves. Further evidence supporting this incident include details from the Serbian Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) military manuals which reveal their possession of chemical incapacitants including BZ and procedures for their implementation. According to eyewitnesses, the attack in Srebnica closely resembled the protocol listed in the manual. Interviews with 35 survivors, UN Personnel and other witnesses, further suggested the use of BZ or a similar incapacitant.
The FAS defines chemical warfare as the use of toxic chemicals to achieve a result in warfare. The toxic effect of the chemical can be to incapacitate, injure or kill, and is usually intended for use against personnel.
It remains to be seen how the Russian government will face up to the responsibility of using chemical warfare against its own people in order to resolve a crisis that may indeed have been solved using other safer measures.
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