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The bust of Nefertiti located in the Egyptian Museum in Berlin, Germany |
The mummy of Queen Nefertiti, wife of Amenhotep IV (Akhenaton) and stepmother to Tutankhamen, has been claimed to have been identified by Joanne Fletcher, a mummification expert from the University of York in England. The mummy is one of the 11 mummies that had been discovered by French Egyptologist Victor Loret in 1898, when he unearthed the tomb of Amenhoteb II in the Valley of the Kings.
This tomb was a remarkable finding as it was the first time that a Pharaoh had been found still lying in his initial resting place. The other mummies were found in a secret chamber within the tomb, 9 of which belonged to the royal family. The mummies were all transferred to the Cairo museum with the exception of three of them due to their poor condition.
The three mummies left behind were those of a boy and two women. The one thought to be that of Queen Nefertiti was photographed in 1907 and was cataloged as Mummy 61072. It was only referred to as 'The Younger Lady' and some Egyptologists think this mummy may have either belonged to Queen Nefertiti or to Princess Sitamun, who was Amenhotep III's daughter and whom also may have been his wife.
The Basis of the Claim
Fletcher's claim that the 'Younger Lady's' mummy might be that of Nefertiti came from certain findings such as a Nubian-style wig that was found near the three mummies. Such wigs were traditionally worn by women of the royal family during the period in which Akhenaton ruled.
Other findings used as evidence for Fletcher's claim include the double-piercing seen on the mummy's left earlobe. Such double piercings have also been found on busts made of Nefertiti and her daughter, and are thought to have been a rare fashion statement at the time. The mummy also shows evidence that a tight brow-band was worn, such as those worn by the pharaoh and his queen during this era. She also has a shaved head that was necessary to allow the tight-fitting crown to stay in place such as the one seen on the limestone bust of Nefertiti at the Berlin Museum.
Cannon digital X-rays used to examine the mummy showed the presence of jewelry in the mummy's abdomen. The mummy also has a swanlike neck that resembles that of the limestone bust of the queen.
The mummy was badly mutilated having a large hole in the face and chest and her right arm had been ripped off, however two incomplete arms had been found in the tomb and one of these arms was bent at the elbow in the royal fashion with the hand clutched as if it were holding a royal scepter, another reason why Fletcher believes this may be Nefertiti.
The Controversy
Several Egyptologists however are against this claim. One of these is Zahi Hawass, the Secretary-General of the Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA). Mr. Hawass explained his skepticism of Fletcher's claim to Al-Ahram Weekly saying that X-ray examination of the mummy that was carried out by himself and another Egyptologist showed the body of the mummy to be that of a 16 year old, whereas Nefertiti is thought to have died in her 30s. He also denies the swan-like neck of the mummy to be evidence "because all the statues of the Amarna era have the same characteristics. Amarna art was idealistic and not realistic," he explains (Al-Ahram Weekly).
Other Egyptologists such as Lisa Sabbahy also challenge Fletcher's claim by stating that the Nubian-style wig found near the mummy did not necessarily belong to it.
Other Egyptologists say that without comparative DNA studies it would be very difficult to identify a particular mummy. Another Egyptologist, Kent Weeks was quoted as saying, "If the mummy is female and if it is royal, then you still do not necessarily have Nefertiti"(Time).
DNA Use in Identification of Mummies
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| 11 mummies were discovered in the tomb of Amenhotep II, one of which is believed to be that of Queen Nefertiti |
The advances made in DNA technology over the past few years have been extremely useful in criminal forensics. It is also now being used as a means of identifying ancient Egyptian mummies. In the past, before the advent of polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which is a method that allows large copies to be made of even a single fragment of DNA, it was almost impossible to use DNA analysis to identify mummies. This was due to the fact that the DNA molecules in mummies are usually very few and fragmented. Preserved soft tissues are also very rare in mummies.
With the advent of PCR and the success in recovering DNA from preserved hard tissue samples, such as bones and teeth that tend to be resilient, these problems have been overcome.
The DNA extracted from the mummy is about an inch long and carries all the genetic information or the 'blueprint' for each individual. After the DNA is amplified i.e. copies are made, it can be read and analyzed. Information that can be obtained from this process includes family relations, ethnicity, genetic traits, disease and cultural customs.
DNA analysis may be able to answer several unknowns in ancient Egyptian history such as the nature of the relation between King Tutankhamun and the two infants that were found buried within his tomb and whether he had been married to his sister as is suspected. It could also answer the question of which of the two 18th-Dynasty kings, Akhenaten or Amenhotep III, was his father. Besides the identification of unnamed mummies, other questions such as whether royalty was inherited in ancient Egypt through maternal or paternal lines may also be answered (DNA Foundation).
Other Techniques in Mummy Examination
There are several non-invasive techniques that are also used in the examination of mummies. This is very important as it allows Egyptologists and other scientists to obtain valuable information without causing any damage to the painted cartonnage case or linen wrappings.
X-rays have been used on mummies since 1967 and much information has been revealed by them such as physical trauma and diseases suffered by the individual and their medical treatment. Some of the diseases that ancient Egyptians were found to have suffered from include leprosy, tuberculosis, cancer such as leukemia, ankylosing spondylitis and spina bifida.
Studies of bone X-rays has also revealed average heights of the individuals during their lifetime and their age at death. In children and adolescents age can be determined by examining the ends of bones at areas called the epiphyses. These areas allow the aging of a person up till the age of 25 after which the epiphyses calcify and stop growing. X-rays of bones can also reveal if the person suffered any fractures during their lifetime. The nature of the person's profession may also become evident. For example, the builders of the great Pyramids at Giza showed evidence of carrying heavy objects by examining the vertebrae in their lower backs. The cause of death may also sometimes be predicted by examining X-rays of the mummy's bones.
Computerized Axial Topography, or CAT scans, allow the reconstruction of facial features and the production of a 3-dimensional image of the body, while samples taken from around the mummy such as the linen wrappings, dust and plaster can be carbon-dated to provide information on the time period that the mummy lived in. This also helps in the identification of the mummies.
The recent developments in technology will allow archeologists and Egyptologists to unveil many mysteries lying behind the linen wrappings of the ancient Egyptian mummies just waiting to be uncovered.
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