1-

The Muslim Population in the United States by Fareed H. Nu'man (Washington, D.C.: American Muslim Council, 1992) gives the American Muslim population for 1991 already at 5,330,000. For the U.K. see M.M. Ahsan, "Islam and the Muslim Community in Britain," paper delivered at Casablanca on March 22, 1997, during the 4th Session of the Islamic University al-Sahwa; and J. Nielsen, Muslims in Western Europe (Edinburgh, 1991); the same, "Citizens or Aliens?," Muslim Politics Report (New York, NY, 1997) no. 15.

2-

Major Qur'anic verses on tolerance and religious pluralism are 2:256; 5:48; 11:118; 16:93; and 42:8.

3-

Qur'anic Christology is mainly found in surahs 3, 4, 5, 11, 16, 19, and 42; also see William E. Phipps, Muhammad and Jesus (London, 1996).

4-

Major parts on Moses are found in surahs 7, 10, 18, 20, 26, 28, and 40.

5-

For the status of non-Muslim ahl al-dhimmah as it ideally should be, see Abdur Rahman I. Doi, Shari'ah, The Islamic Law (London, 1984), pp. 426-435, and Muhammad Sa'id R. Al Buti, Jihad in Islam (Damascus, 1995), pp. 114-139. For the fiqh al-siyar as actually practiced during the Middle Ages, very much against the spirit of the Qur'an, see lbn Nawawi, Minhaj al-T\aµlibEµn, trans. by E.C. Howard (Lahore, 1914, 1977), pp. 468-469. For a future development of the status of dhimmi into citizenship rights, see Fathi Osman, "Human Rights on the Eve of the 21st Century," paper presented in London to the Conference on Islam and Modernity (July 6, 1996), pp. 19-21.

6-

For details see Khaled Abou El Fadl, "Islamic Law and Muslim Minorities," Islamic Law and Society, Vol. 1, No. 2 (Leiden, August 1994). lbn Nawawi, Minhaj al-T\aµlibEµn, writes on p. 463: "The law recommends a Moslem inhabiting an infidel country to emigrate, even though he may enjoy there the free exercise of his religion."

7-

Fathi Osman put it succinctly when saying that "the division of dar al-Islam apart from the other world. . . , was historical and theoretical" (my emphasis). See F. Osman, "Human Rights on the Eve of the 21st Century."

8-

Such clauses are Art. 18 of the General Declaration of Human Rights of 10 December 1948; Art. 9 of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Basic Freedoms of 4 November 1950; and Art. 18 of the International Pact concerning Civil and Political Rights of 19 December 1966.

9-

Examples are the Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies and the Graduate School for Islamic and Social Sciences in Leesburg, Virginia.

10-

The most liberal and complete arrangement for any Muslim community in Europe was concluded on April 28, 1992, between the Spanish minister of justice and the Spanish Islamic Commission, ratified by the Spanish Parliament on November 10, 1992, by law no. 26/1992. It provides, e.g., for immunity of Islamic centers, religious instruction even in private schools, Muslim holidays, halal slaughtering, Muslim access to hospital and prisons, and working hours during Ramadan.

11-

Under Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, the German Catholics, suspected of  "Ultramontanism," went through what was called "Kulturkampf" (cultural battle) long before Samuel Huntington's analysis.

12-

96:1.

13-

See Yamine Bouguenaya Mermer, "Induction, Science and Causation: Some Critical Reflections," Islamic Studies, Vol. 35, no.3 (Islamabad, Summer 1996).

14-

European Sufis like René Guénon, Martin Lings, Frithjof Schoun, and Michel Chodkiewicz have always contributed to this spiritualization.

15-

Currently there exist several Muslim umbrella organizations in the U.K., France, and Germany but already a central Muslim organization at the European level has been formed, located in Strasbourg-the Muslim Coordination Council in Europe, with Dr. Abdalla Boussouf as cordinator.

16-

A pioneering work was Muhammad Asad's The Principles of State and Government in lslam (Gibraltar, 1980). For Fathi Osman see, e.g., his Sharia in Contemporary Society-The Dynamics of Change in the Islamic Law (Los Angeles, 1994), with chapters on "Shura and Democracy" and "Voting"; also see his paper "Human Rights on the Eve of the 21st Century-Problems for Muslims and Others," submitted to the Conference on Islam and Modernity in London (July 6, 1996); for Ghannouchi see, e.g., "Towards Inclusive Strategies for Human Rights Enforcement in the Arab World-A Response," Encounters, Vol. 2, no. 2 (Leicester, September 1996).

17-

Bassam Tibi denies that in Islam human beings are autonomous subjects. Therefore he claims that there is no such thing as an individual right in Islam. See Bassam Tibi, Die Krise des modernen Islams (Frankfurt, 1991), pp. 260 and 271. No wonder there are books titled Democracy without Democrats? The Renewal of Politics in the Muslim World, ed. Ghassan Salamé (London, 1994).

18-

I have tried to give a more concrete answer to these pertinent questions in Murad Hofmann, Islam 2000, (Beltsville, Md.:amana publications, 1996) and Islam: The Alternative (amana publications, 1997).

19-

See Religion in Contemporary Europe, ed. John Fulton and Peter G. Lampeter (Wales, 1994).

20-

A German ultraconservative Christian organization called "Christliche Mitte" has been conducting an anti-Islamic hate campaign for several years now.