|
|
|
The common history of Islam and Europe is not only a picture of doom and gloom
|
Islam
is not new to Europe.[1] The year 711 CE[2]
is often quoted as the time when Muslims from North Africa entered Spain;
however, the first official contact point was probably when Muhammad (peace and
blessings be upon him) sent the messenger Dihya ibn Khalifa[3]
to Heraclius[4] in 628 CE.[5]
Soon after, in 652 CE, Mu`awiyah ibn Abi Sufyan[6]
sent troops into Sicily.[7] Since such times,
Muslims have interacted with Europe in one form or another. In fact, it would be
fair to say that Islam has been a European phenomenon for large part of its
history—almost 800 years of Muslim civilization in Spain, and over 250 years
in Sicily. Along with this establishment of European Muslim Communities, there
were also other meeting points—the brief presence in southern France, the
conflicts in Austria, and of course, the Crusades.
In
more recent history, the world has seen Europe reaching into other parts of the
world during colonialism and after that the arrival of Muslim migrants into
Europe seeking jobs and a better life. For Islam and Europe to learn to accept
each other, it must be pointed out that the common history of Islam and Europe
is not only a picture of doom and gloom, but contains innumerable instances of
exchange of learning, mutual development, and partnership. European scholars now
live in a climate where they are ready to admit the tremendous influence of
Muslim civilization to the makeup of Europe: the contribution of Ibn Khaldun[9]
to sociology and history, of Al-Razi[8] and
Ibn Sina[10] to medicine, of Al-Khuwarizmi[11]
to mathematics.
The
common usage of words such as alcohol, alchemy and algebra are derived from
Arabic (see appendix 1). The pilgrimage of Europeans to the centers of learning
in Cordoba, Toledo, and Granada in Muslim Spain are all testimonies to the
contribution of Muslims in the formation of Europe. The wisdom of the ancient
Greeks was preserved and annotated by the Arabs, such that the writings of
Aristotle, Euclid, Galen, Archimedes, and others, were translated into Arabic
and later into Latin.[12] In fact, Arabic
can be seen as one of the classical languages of Europe.[13]
In
the words of Montgomery Watt, “Thus, through trade contacts and through
political presence in Spain and Sicily, the superior culture of the Arabs
gradually made its way into Western Europe. Though Western Europe was in contact
with the Byzantine Empire, it took over far more from the Arabs than from the
Byzantines. When one becomes aware of the full extent of Arab experimenting,
Arab thinking, and Arab writing, one sees that without the Arabs, European
science and philosophy would not have developed when they did.”[14]
Read
in This Article
Europe
Today
|
|
|
Islam is still not officially recognized by Europe
|
Today,
early in the new millennium, it is more important than ever to remind ourselves
of the positive historical partnership of Islam and Europe. Today, we see in
Western Europe around 10 million Muslims. The 1990s saw a dramatic rise in the
number of Muslims that have become “visible.” Muslim organizations are
proliferating very rapidly; there is a large growth in the number of mosques. It
is also interesting to observe that there is a steady trickle of those who are
converting to Islam. Islam has become a point of hot debate: What will be the
future of these Muslims in Europe? Are they a fifth column? Are they a source of
fundamentalism in a tolerant Europe? Are they a threat that needs to be
contained and assimilated before they endanger the stability of Europe?
Thankfully, not all quarters of Europe are obsessed by such questions.
It
is very true, however, that a great deal of mistrust regarding the Other
prevails, both on the side of some Muslims and on the side of certain elements
within Europe. François Leotard, as French defense minister, stated, “Islamic
fundamentalism is as dangerous today as Nazism once was.”[15]
Huntington’s theories, though largely rejected, continue to have their devout
followers. Throughout Europe, Islamophobia seems to be on the increase.[16]
On a more general level, former UK Conservative Party chairman Lord Tebbit’s
views on cricket are well known,[17] and he
added, “You can’t have a whole load of different cultures in one society;
you have one culture for one society. ... Multiculturalism is a divisive
force.”[18]
Although
these opinions may not always be of the mainstream, they have their significant
effects on minority communities. This can create a siege mentality among those
who already carry the inherited memories of colonialism. With the notable
exception of a few countries, Islam is still not officially recognized by
Europe. Of course, Islam is here, that is the reality, but official recognition
has its impact on outlook, funding, status, and so on. Western Europe has
developed very different models for dealing with Islam. Austria, Spain, and
Belgium have legally recognized Islam. Sweden is willing to fund certain
activities for Muslims as long as they are represented through organizations of
a particular minimum size. In France, no religious community has official
recognition. The establishment of Laicité in 1905, prohibits any
expression of religion in public life. It was on this basis that the headscarf
incidents arose. It is, however, important to note that the French president is
traditionally buried in Notre Dame, and the Jewish yarmulke is tolerated. So,
there does seem to an informal, flexible application of the law. Germany still
refuses to accept that it is a country of immigration; hence, the immigrants are
known as Gasterbeiter, or guest workers, even after three generations.
Britain, although not legally recognizing the Muslim community, has largely
accommodated and accepted the diversity of its minorities.
Images
of Islam
Over
the long interaction between Europe and Islam, many negative images of Islam
were built up, some of these politically motivated, others due to religious
differences. In the medieval era, it was commonly understood that Muslims were
idolaters who worship Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him), or that
Muhammad himself was a magician or, in other instances, the devil Mahound or the
antichrist. Islam was portrayed as a religion of falsehood, a deliberate
adulteration of the truth. Furthermore, it was a religion of violence that was
spread by the sword. Muslims were people who were obsessed with carnal desires
and self-indulgence; fornication and homosexuality were seen to be justified by
the faith. Many of these ideas were concocted to create an alliance of
Christendom to fight the Crusades, to show that the Other was living in
darkness, hence justifying the need to convert them or fight them.[19]
It is also interesting to note that even today, some of those images, as well as
other new ones, still exist.
Is
Islam a Threat?
Let
us consider for a moment the condition of Islam in the modern world. The Muslims
can be seen as living in two general situations: first, as minorities in the
West, in China, and so on, and second, in conditions where the majority is
Muslim. To consider the first situation, it would take a great stretch of the
imagination to describe those minorities as composing a threat to Europe or the
West. These communities themselves are afraid of the environment they live in.
There is a very real possibility that the cultural and religious values, the
ethical norms of the migrant settlers will be eroded by the second and third
generations. Such communities are too busy being defensive to pose any threat to
the established order within which they live.
Looking
at the Muslim world, the power politics are not so different. There are some 56
Muslim states, but most Muslims will have serious reservations as to the
“Islamicity” of these states. Most of these countries fall within the
category of developing nations, or, until recently, the Third World; they are
drowning in debt to the IMF, World Bank, and to the developed world. In terms of
technology, they are always trying to catch up to the Western world: The
influence of Western media and the process of globalization dominate them. Some
have minerals or raw nuclear or oil resources, but the prevailing political ties
are such that it is usually very difficult to use these in any way that is
against Western interests: The Gulf war was a testimony to that. One could look
at this whole situation from a different perspective and see that the state of
Israel exists among a sea of Muslim states, none of which seems to like its
presence, but none of these states is powerful or independent enough to alter
the situation. The events that unfolded in Bosnia seemed to have a deep
emotional impact upon Muslims around the world, but the international Muslim
community was unable to have any serious political effect. In fact, the only
help they could offer seemed to be to collect money for charity organizations.
How then, could such an international community pose a serious threat to the
established might of the West?
Muslims
in Europe Today
|
|
|
Muslims in Europe have been subject to at least three major waves of self-awareness
|
As
it stands, the Muslim community, which is a very young community, (in the United
Kingdom 75 percent of the Muslim community is estimated to be under the age of
35[20]) has its own problems. A large number
of the youth face an identity crisis, torn between the culture of their parents
and that of their environment. It is in this context that the Islamic revival
within Europe must be placed. Muslims in Europe have been subject to at least
three major waves of self-awareness.
First,
in the late 1970s, the Iranian revolution had a major impact on the Muslim
world, even on those Muslims living in Europe, regardless of their stance
towards the Iranian Revolution; this was a sign of Islam reaching prominence.
Second,
Salman Rushdie’s Satanic Verses in 1989 led many Muslims in the United
Kingdom, especially youth, to search deep within themselves and question their
role in a society that seemed to disregard their faith and their rights. The
issue of hijab or foulard has had a similar effect in other European
countries.
Third,
the Gulf War, Bosnia, and other recent political events have caused a tremendous
stir within the Muslim community. There seems to be some shifting of the goal
posts. When Iraq was opposed to Iran, it was seen as reasonable to arm Saddam
Hussein; but when he invaded Kuwait, he had to be stopped. The Serbs, however,
were, by and large, allowed to slaughter the Bosnians. Legitimate elections in
Algeria were cancelled in the name of protecting democracy, while the Turkish
army arrogantly interfered in the democratic process and was allowed to hold the
nation’s politicians hostage. When the United States supported the Afghans
against Russia, they were freedom fighters; but when Palestinians struggle for
independence, they are terrorists. The image of Islam is still one of violence
and terror stemming from jihad, even though, perhaps all the acts of jihad in
the last 100 years have been defensive struggles for freedom and
self-determination. When a bomb explodes in Cairo, it seems quite reasonable for
a reporter in Bradford to stop a young Muslim on the street to ask his or her
opinion on the matter, but no one thinks of asking a Copt in Egypt about the
strife in Northern Ireland.
As
a rule, this has created disappointment and has contributed to a sense of
resentment and rejection. Some elements of the Islamic revival have tapped into
those tendencies of rejection and anger, and have given an outlet through a
discourse of vociferous denunciation of the West and all things Western.
However, the Islamic revival is not all a negative reaction; it is largely a
positive journey of self-discovery and, in fact, for an increasing number of
young people, it enables them to discover an alternative to their parental
culture—a European Islamic culture. This is brought about by a process of
shedding the cultural baggage of the Asian or Arab Islam, to return to the basic
and fundamental principles and to apply them in a European context. This process
can only be a healthy one for Europe, for it creates people who are confident of
their identity: They are European Muslims. They want to contribute to its
future, to build a better Europe for themselves and for their children. In the
words of Khurshid Ahmed, “It would be a tragedy if we became prisoners of the
past.”[21] As such, Muslims also need to
address some issues within their quarters.
Just
as Muslims claim that Islam is not monolithic, they need to understand that
Europe is not monolithic either. There are many in Europe who are prepared to
look objectively if not sympathetically to the problems that Muslims face.
Furthermore, it is important to note that the struggle of the Islamic movements
is not one against the West or Europe; rather it is a process of community and
self-development, as Hasan Al-Turabi says: “The West is not our preoccupation.
We are concerned with the constructive regeneration of our societies by
mobilizing our souls and minds, not fighting ‘Great Satans.’ Except when a
policy is directed against Islam, the West is not the enemy for us.”[22]
Contact
with Europe has enabled Muslims to learn much; in fact, while there is pride
that Europeans learned from the establishments of Al-Andalus, there also needs
to be gratitude for Muslims now studying in Oxford, Cambridge, and London
universities. Many of the revivalist movements have absorbed ideas,[23]
methods, even structures from European models. Encounters with modern Europe
have prompted Muslims to engage in internal debates on a variety of issues such
as democracy, pluralism, the role and status of women, concepts of dar
al-harb, and so on. In fact, the whole worldview of Muslims is undergoing
changes. In 1992, in a fiqh seminar in France on the theme of Muslims in the
West, a group of leading Muslim scholars discussed some of these ideas. One of
the objections they raised to the concepts of dar al-harb and dar
al-Islam was that a fundamental characteristic of dar al-Islam is
security, but how can we call the Muslim world dar al-Islam when there is
so much dictatorship and persecution of even Muslim scholars and activists?
Similarly, how can we call the West dar al-harb, when such Muslims often
have to leave their own countries and seek political asylum in the West?[24]
The
Future
|
|
|
Just as Muslims claim that Islam is not monolithic, they need to understand that Europe is not monolithic either
|
The
way towards learning to accept each other, and therefore being able to live with
each other, may not be easy; it is a delicate process indeed, but there is no
other alternative. It will take time, as negative images have been built up over
centuries and these will not be replaced overnight. In fact, both Europe and
Islam need to understand themselves better in order to be able to understand
each other,[25] for notions of the self and
the Other exert a mutual influence.
In
my opinion, the greatest responsibility lies in the hands of the majority, the
host community, Europe. Minorities can be dealt with in two different ways: (1)
Cultural diversity can be accommodated, even celebrated, which will make the
minority feel welcome and hence willing to engage with the society; or (2)
diversity can be feared and eliminated by expulsion, suppression, or forced
assimilation. The former is the path of pluralism and seems to be the most
sensible approach. Any attempts to eliminate the Muslim identity will only cause
more problems in the long term. One only needs to look at the differences
between the Muslims in France and in the United Kingdom to see the effect of the
different models practiced. Granted, French and Algerian history continues to be
a significant obstacle, but French Laicité and notions of cultural unity
themselves place tremendous burdens upon the Muslim community. The idea is to
avoid ghettos and exclusion zones; the result, however, is a community that
continuously feels threatened and is on edge, so much so that it is, on the
whole, unable to even think of itself as French.
Today,
Muslims may represent a different culture, but we need to remember that cultures
are the result of eclectic processes; cultures are never static. Was
Christianity not once an Eastern phenomenon? But in time it rooted itself in
Western society. Curry, kebab, pizza, and burgers are all now established
elements of British culture, yet they were not originally British.
Muslim
societies have traditionally been plural.[26]
Muslim theology reminds mankind that diversity is a natural and positive factor
in life, in which peoples should come together to learn about each other.
[O
mankind! We have created you from male and a female and have made you into
nations and tribes, so that you may come to know one another. Verily, the
noblest of you in the sight of God is the one who is most conscious of Him.]
(Al-Hujurat 49:13)
[And
if God had so willed, He could surely have made you all a single people.]
(Al-Ma’idah 5:48)
Pluralism,
therefore, gives an avenue for the future of Europe to be strong, stable, and
peaceful. Muslims need to come together with their fellow human beings,
irrespective of faith, to work together for the common good, just as Muhammad
(peace and blessings be upon him) entered into the hilf al-fudul.[27]
The alternative to pluralism would be to anticipate and prepare for some sort of
clash of civilizations or elimination of one or the other, and that would be a
terrible blow to both Europe and Islam. It would be a very sad moment indeed for
opportunities lost.
*
Dilwar Hussain, is a Research Fellow at the Islamic Foundation and can be
contacted by email: dilwar@islamic-foundation.org.uk.
[1]
In this discussion, by Europe I mean mainly Western Europe, as the presence of
Islam in East and West Europe is quite disparate.
[2]
Watt, W. M. and Chachia, P. A History of Islamic Spain, Edinburgh
University Press, 1977, p. 5.
[3]
Dihya bin Khalifa (d. 670 CE), a Companion of the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh), was
used mainly on diplomatic missions.
[4]
Heraclius (575-641 CE) was the Byzantine Emperor from 610 until his death.
[5]
Ibn Hisham, The Life of Muhammad, translated by Guillaume, Oxford
University Press, 1987, pp. 653-654.
[6]
Mu`awiyah ibn Abi Sufyan was the fifth caliph (660-680 CE), after Ali ibn Abi
Talib, and the first of the Ummayad caliphs.
[7]
Ahmad, A. A History of Islamic Sicily, Edinburgh University Press,
1975, p. 2.
[8]
Wali Al-Din `Abdur-Rahman ibn Muhammad, or Ibn Khaldun as he was known, was a
historian, sociologist, and philosopher (1332-82 CE).
[9]
Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariyya Al-Razi, known in the West as Rhazes, was a
physician, alchemist, and philosopher (854-925 CE).
[10]
Abu `Ali Al-Husayn ibn `Abdullah ibn Sina, known in the West as Avicenna, was
a philosopher (980-1037 CE).
[11]
Abu Ja`far Muhammad ibn Musa Al-Khuwarizmi, the initiator of algebra, was a
mathematician, astronomer, and geographer (around 800-847 CE).
[12]
Wallbank, T. W. and Taylor, A. M. et al, Civilisation Past & Present,
HarperCollins, 1987, pp. 169-172.
[13]
Nielsen, J. S. “Islam and Europe”, paper presented at the Islamic
Foundation, Leicestershire, UK, October 1997.
[14]
Watt, W. M. The Influence of Islam on Medieval Europe, Edinburgh
University Press, 1972, pp. 29-43.
[15]
Agence France Press, August 15, 1994.
[16]
Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All, The Runnymede Trust, 1997.
[17]
His “cricket test,” also known as the “Tebbit Test,” was when he
suggested that people from ethnic minorities in Britain should not be
considered truly British until they supported the England cricket team, as
opposed to the team of the country of their or their ancestors’ birth.
[18]
The Independent, October 8, 1997.
[19]
Watt, W. M. The Influence of Islam on Medieval Europe, op. cit., pp.
72-84.
[20]
Church, J. (ed), Social Trends, Vol 27, HMSO, London, 1997, p. 31.
[21]
Ahmad, K. “Islam and the West: Confrontation or Cooperation,” The
Muslim World, Vol. 85, No. 1-2, 1995, p. 80.
[22]
Hasan Al-Turabi, “The Islamic Awakening’s Second Wave,” New
Perspectives Quarterly, No. 9, 1992, p. 55.
[23]
Nielsen, J. S. “Islam and Europe”, op. cit.
[24]
Muslims in the West
: A Fiqh Seminar in France, July 1992. Summarized and translated by Dr.
Sayyid Darsh.
[25]
Ballard, R. “Islam and the Construction of Europe”, pp. 15-50, in Muslims
in the Margin, Shadid, W. and Koningsveld, P. (eds), Pharos, 1996.
[26]
Taylor, J. B. Thinking About Islam, Lutterworth Educational Press,
1971, p. 43.
[27]
Lings, M. Muhammad
: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources, Unwin, 1988, p. 31-32. The hilf
al-fudul was a pact that Muhammad (pbuh) was involved in, at an early age,
to stand up for justice and to speak out for people’s rights.
