Many
may believe in intercultural dialogue as a promised way to dispel the myth of
the “Clash of Civilizations,” but such a dialogue should go through
different challenges and examinations to prove it so.
It
has always been like that; culture is a component of both conflict and dialogue.
But nowadays, the importance of culture as a main factor in determining
international attitudes is more obvious. An international conference, The Image
of Arab-Islamic Culture in European History Textbooks, was held in Cairo, Egypt,
to elaborate on the idea that security cannot be achieved without more cultural
understanding.
Amr
Moussa, Arab League secretary-general, described the discrimination against
Islam and Muslims in school textbooks, media, laws, as “Islamophobic.”
According to him, the phenomena should be addressed internationally and tackled
in the same way as anti-Semitism. However, the resemblance should not be taken
at face value without profound analysis and examination. Moreover, a recent
United Nations special seminar on Islamophobia put a spotlight on the same
issues.
The
Image of Arab-Islamic Culture in European History Textbooks: Read the
Papers' Abstract*
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In
the same respect, the Spanish Prime Minister José Luis Rodríguez
Zapatero launched his initiative, Coalition Between Civilizations, with the
assumption that “it goes beyond the politics but it cannot go without it.”
Between
Macro and Micro
“For
Giddens, there are connections between the most ‘micro’ aspects of
society—an individuals’ internal sense of self and identity—and the bigger
picture of the state, multinational corporations, and globalization, the
‘macro level.’ Sociology cannot make sense of these levels by looking at
them in isolation.”1
On the issue of European textbooks, we can understand the impact of the micro
daily level on the macro international level as Dr. Mustafa Al-Halwaji of
Al-Azhar stated in his paper, in which he discussed how misrepresenting Islam
and Muslims in the European textbooks has negative effects on Muslim students:
“These students might be psychologically offended. They might even turn into
fanatic defenders of their misrepresented religion in attempts to prove the
validity of their religion.”
Choosing
a vivid specific topic, The Image of Islam and Muslims in the European School
Textbooks raised expectations that the conference would be a different event,
with a clear vision and technical recommendations. Since the crisis of September
11, an almost continuous series of conferences, symposiums, forums, and so on
have been held regularly. Overgeneralizations, celebratory atmospheres,
monolithic visions, and repetitive topics are a few of the problematic
characteristics of most of these meetings. As long as the conflicts are
increasing worldwide, these initiatives can be considered as a “dialogue of
the deaf”!
Beyond
the Buzz: Experts Should Lead
Although
the influence of politics is inevitable, as has already been represented above,
the voice of the experts should lead the argument, especially as the conference
focused on European history textbooks.
Epistemological
Problems
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The
conference was jointly organized by the UNESCO, the Arab League, the
European Program, the ISESCO, and other national and international
organizations
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Reading
most of the abstracts of the conference papers, one can see the significance of
the topic and its implications. But at the same time, one can easily observe the
lack of adherence to a common theoretical framework among the different
contributions. The contributions varied from using the qualitative to
quantitative methodologies, from subjectivity to objectivity. Several
coordination and specialist technical sessions should have been held first to
address these issues adequately.
Some
of the participants considered the textbooks as symptoms of sophisticated
epistemological problems, like the impact of the different waves of Orientalism
through space and time. These waves have largely determined our approaches and
terminology, and they have become the reason for many misunderstandings.
It
is necessary to distinguish between the different levels of intercultural
negotiations; knowing “how much of Muslim legacy and tradition is sacrosanct,
and therefore non-negotiable or firmly established (thabit in Arabic),
and how much is a matter of interpretive application and contextually bound to a
particular era and geography, and therefore subject to change (mutaghayyir)
over time and place.”2
Some
of the eye-opening experiences during the dialogues showed that theological
absolute answers to non-religious relative questions are one of the reasons for
miscommunication. We should understand the differences between two words, language
and discourse when it comes to address our
own cause and convey our message to the “Other.”
Moving
from the theoretical framework to the actual discussions among the participants,
the discussions strayed from the topic. Most of the contributors and the
commentators, especially from the Arab side, showed a preference for recalling
repetitive mutual misconceptions and the impact of the current international
political scene rather than sticking to the agenda and going in depth through
the issues designated for each session.
Of
course the issue should not be decontextualized, especially when it is related
to the complex relations between Islam and the West; but one should know when to
bring in related topics without mixing them up with unrelated ones.
Experiences
Speak Louder Than Words
Regularly,
the only way out from the dilemma of recycling old arguments is to share real
experiences with others. We could learn a lot if we tried to examine our
theories and values with people from different backgrounds. This could be an
example of good practice in intercultural dialogue and a form of cooperation
that should be developed adequately.
Dr.
Wolfgang Hoepken of the George
Eckert Institute shed some light
upon one of these experiences as he presented a joint textbook project between
Germany and France. According to the mission statement on its Web site, the
institute “continues to contribute to the effort of overcoming conflict and
prejudice and to encourage peace and education.”
As
the institute strives to diminish prejudice, it offers recommendations for the
improvement of textbooks, depending on different methodological techniques.
Reading between the lines and analyzing underlying assumptions of texts are some
of these techniques.
For
the George Eckert Institute, Franco-German collaboration is a precondition for
achieving European integration. The goal is to produce teaching materials on a
variety of topics such as “Regions Within Europe,” “The First World
War,” “From Traditional Enemy (Erbfeind) to Partner,” and “Routes
to Modernity.” Hoepken emphasized the possibility of achieving mutual
understanding and changing the stereotypes between Muslim and Western societies
by adopting the same techniques.
The
Black Sea Initiative on History is another experience that challenges the
dividing lines caused by conflicts or prejudices. What is really a benefit of
this project is its approach; it does not try to give the final word on every
incident, but rather represents the different narratives about historical
events. The project’s teaching pack “takes into account the ongoing debate
concerning controversial issues in the history of the Black Sea region.” It
“has not been designed to provide a definitive answer to these issues but to
provide an understanding of the complexity of the historical process.”3
Dr.
Michael Reily of Bath University, United Kingdom, decided to face the
misconception about Islam and Muslims in British textbooks through
teamwork—producing a textbook on the same themes for 11- through
14-year-old-students.
Reily
tried to explore the image of Muslims through space and time by showing that
their unity is in their diversity. Some titles in the book are “Prophet
Muhammad,” “Capital Baghdad,” “North Africa,” “Crusades,” “Ibn
Batouta: The Most Renowned Muslim Voyageur,” “Palestine and Israel,” and
“Muslim Minorities.”
The
Weakest Link
The
representation of Muslim communities in European countries was the weakest link
of this conference. Although there are many challenges facing the Muslim
minorities, their opportunities, especially among the younger generations, are
increasing, too.
For
the Muslim minorities in the West, refuting misconceptions about Islam and
Muslims is not merely a theoretical problem but a pressing social need to
survive in their societies. Given this, non-governmental bodies and alternative
solutions should have been more obviously represented. One important
organization that is concerned with the problems of Muslim minorities in the
West and that should have been present is the UK-based Books For Schools.
The
Muslim Council of Britain (MCB) launched this initiative as they feel that it is
“time for British Muslims to act to make the most of this immense opportunity
and to turn the tide of negative stereotypical portrayals of Islam by ensuring
that every school child in Britain has access to high-quality Islamic resources
within their school.”4
Their aim is to place high-quality Islamic resources (to include books,
materials, CDs, DVDs, videos, and accompanying teaching aids) into school
classrooms. This project has already been demonstrated by similar ventures of
this kind in other countries where Muslims are a minority community, such as the
project by CAIR in Washington, DC.
Using
the media is an important tool to empower the people. The information in the
media does not merely reflect the world, but constantly shapes it as well. In
this regard, the Internet can play a key role; it has helpful characteristics
that give people the chance to speak out about their fears, feelings, and views.
The impersonal medium makes it no more a just one-way traffic, but we must
remember that we constantly influence others and we are constantly influenced by
external factors.
Accordingly,
IslamOnline.net made use of this interactive characteristic and asked people to
contribute ahead the conference.
These
changes and alternatives may send out powerful, clear signals to show that
people themselves have windows of opportunity. With more commitment and
awareness, there will be a ray of hope and a touch of optimism in an otherwise
deeply troublesome scenario.
Back
to the Issue—History
Jihad,
women, the life of Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) and the
Qur’an are keywords in the classical misunderstanding of Islam and Muslims.
Deliberate distortions, simplifications, exaggerations, and neglect of cultural
plurality in the Muslim world are the most important characteristics of the
misrepresentation of Muslim societies. When searching for the reasons, another
dimension should be clarified; as Edward Said stated, “it’s a clash of
ignorance.” Hatred, fear, and ignorance are all components of the negative
portrayal.
However,
avoiding a monolithic and static portrayal of Islam may lead us into the trap of
fragmentation. Since Islam is not a single homogenous phenomenon, a more subtle
approach should be taken.
The
diverse Muslim cultural expressions that can be seen around the world are
obvious.
However,
this does not mean that there are many ‘Islams,’ but that there are many
expressions of the Muslim way of life. Islam encapsulates values and ideas
that lead to a cultural manifestation in the context of the particular area of
the world where those values are implanted. This manifestation takes on the
color of the society it resides in and remains willing to change with time.5
Images
and Counter-Images
In
his paper “Religious Commitment: Images and Counter-Images,” Prof. Jan
Henningsson of the Swedish Institute in Alexandria asserted
[The]
teaching of religion in governmental and private-schools requires sensitivity
and courage. Sensitivity in order to respect the feelings of the ‘Other,’
courage in order to ask straight questions about the ‘Other’ and accept
difficult questions about myself.
You
can find the same message in the contribution of Dr. Fawzia Al-Ashmawi of the
University of Switzerland:
It
is obvious that one of the ways to create peaceful societies is the
development of curricula that teach young pupils to respect differences
between people and to appreciate common values which can help them to overcome
prejudices.
Ironically,
one does not find one uniform image for Islam and Muslims in these sophisticated
European textbooks. In his paper, Al-Halwaji concluded
History
books taught in Hungarian schools present the Islamic culture of the Middle
Ages as a great culture, yet the image of the religion of Islam is presented
negatively in the books.
For
Abdel Mohsen Bin Salem Al-Ukely—head of a team that analyzes British
schoolbooks for the General Directorate of Educational Research, Ministry of
Education, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia—the image of Arabs and Muslims in the
British textbooks was neutral and generally positive, but becomes negative when
dealing with the Crusades and the Arab-Israeli conflict. This negative image is
also clear in some books that connect Islam and terrorism and misunderstand the
concept of jihad.
Schoolbooks
in Italy acknowledge the achievements of the Muslim civilization. These books
agree that the Muslim civilization preserved the Greek and Persian cultural and
scientific heritage; it updated this heritage and added to it. However, the
Italian history schoolbooks handle the concept of jihad and the personality of
Prophet Muhammad in a negative way, stated Dr. Salah Ramadan El-Sayed of
Al-Azhar University.
Dr.
Mohamed Mansour, also of Al-Azhar University, placed the spotlight in his paper
“Image of Islam in Austrian Schoolbooks” on an issue that is difficult to
avoid: understanding and interpreting the Qur’anic verses that address jihad,
women, and other such issues. “It is clear that the verses were removed from
their correct historical, geographical, social, cultural, military, and
political context,” he said. In addition, Al-Halwaji defined the precondition
that “a verse from the Qur’an should be read in the light of the Islamic
principles and the rules of the Arabic language and rhetoric.”
Moreover,
Al-Ukely pointed out that the British textbooks may create a discourse that is
too reductionist in nature:
It
minimized the religion into orders—do that, do not do that, this is
forbidden, this is permissible—so that the Western reader does not see the
reality of Islam as a religion that carries a complete civilized message. The
reader only gets a feeling that Islam is a religion of strict orders.
Although
most of the classical misconceptions relate to historical backgrounds,
Al-Ashmawi argued that after September 11, 2001, the European curricula of
secondary schools were mainly concerned with contemporary Islam. This emphasizes
the fact that portraying Islam and Muslims is not only the mission of
historians, but of many others too, such as museum curators, filmmakers,
television producers, and journalists, to mention a few.
Presenting
a counter-image, Al-Ashmawi, in a comparative study about the image of the
“Other” in the history textbooks of some Mediterranean countries, discussed
that “the Muslim presentation of Europeans contains more critical views of
Western culture: sexual liberty, disintegration of the family, gay marriage, and
so on.”
She
compared the two different discourses:
While
European authors use omission and neglect as weapons in order to mask
historical truth, Muslim authors make use of an emphatic terminology and
overvalue historical facts in order to stress the Muslim’s past glory.
What
You See Matters Less Than How You See It
The
discussion of images and counter-images above paves the way for introducing
“Multiperspectivity,” a term more often used than defined, especially in
this conference. K. Peter Fritzsche has emphasized that it is a process, “a
strategy of understanding,” in which we take into account another’s
perspective (or others’ perspectives) in addition to our own. In this respect,
multiperspectivity means to be able and willing to regard a situation from
different perspectives.6
Dealing
with a wide range of sources and facing many narratives of the same historical
incidents produces many questions concerning the techniques that should be
adopted. How should we handle topics and issues that are likely to be
controversial and sensitive in a multi-national and multicultural society? There
is a "greater emphasis in the history classroom on students learning how to
analyze, interpret and synthesise evidence obtained from a variety of primary
and secondary sources."7
“History
education has all too often been taught from a perspective that was
monocultural, ethnocentric, exclusive rather than inclusive.”8
Many researchers nowadays are trying to review these approaches. The
precondition is a willingness to accept that there are other possible ways of
viewing the world than one’s own, and that these may be equally valid and
equally partial. Or, as has been transmitted by Imam Al-Shafi`i (b. AH 150/767
CE): “My view is correct though it is liable to error, and another view is
wrong though it is liable to be correct.”
Read
The Papers' Abstract
Other
*The
international conference The Image of Arab-Islamic Culture in European History
Textbooks was held in Cairo,Egypt, from December 12 to 14, 2004.
The
conference was jointly organized by the United Nations Educational, Social, and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the Arab League, the European Program, the
Islamic Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (ISESCO), and other
national and international organizations
Dalia
Yusuf is IslamOnline.net's Art & Culture Page editor. She has a
postgraduate diploma in journalism from Cairo University. You can reach her at Bridge@islam-online.net.
[1]
Dilwar Hussain, “British Muslims Between Assimilation and Segregation,” in
British Muslim Identity (Markfield, UK: Islamic Foundation, 2004) p. 88.
[2]
Ibid., p. 87.
[3]
Gabriele Mazza, in the preface, The Black Sea: A History of Interactions
(Council of Europe, 2004) pp. 4–5.
[4]
"Books
For Schools - Sponsor A Books Pack For Your Local School!" in www.mcb.org.uk
(last accessed January 18, 2005).
[5]
Hussain, op. cit., p. 99.
[6]
Robert Stardling, Multiperspectivity in History Teaching: A Guide for Teachers
(Council of Europe, 2003) p. 13.
[7]
Ibid., p. 10.
[8]
Ibid.
