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This
article attempts to evaluate the theory of evolution(1)
in the light of the textual sources of Islam. The focus here is on the
methodology of investigating the relationship between evolution and Islam, both
from the religious and scientific sides, rather than the result of
investigation.
The
Sunnan of Allah
Allah
has His ways of doing things. These are called in the Qur’an the sunnan
of Allah. They are described as immutable and eternal.(2)
There
has been a debate within Islamic theology regarding the issue of natural
“laws,” or more precisely, the issue of causality which is a prerequisite
for the construction of natural laws. Scholars from Ash`ari school of theology,
such as Abu Hamid al-Ghazali, denied the principle of causality, asserting that
Allah is either acting directly or through the angels(3).
This was done in order to uphold the omnipotence of God who, given a strict view
of causality, would be subservient to the laws of nature, and, hence, would not
constitute the ultimate reality.
Nevertheless,
a close reading of, for example, al-Ghazali’s The Incoherence of
Philosophers shows that he did not deny the appearance of causality to human
observers. What is denied is the necessity of causality and its implication that
Allah is acting by way of necessity and not by way of choice. Al-Ghazali,
however, admitted that we can rely on causality, not because it is necessary,
but because through repetition, it appears to be the way things happen. Building
on al-Ghazali’s idea, one can readily accept naturalistic explanations of what
happens in the universe. These explanations are our human attempt to know how
nature works. At the same time, we need to exercise enough humility to
acknowledge our own shortcomings and to recognize the fallibility of our
science.
This
introduction is important because Muslims believe that Allah is the Creator of
everything. He is the uncaused cause; the being who caused the universe to exist
but he himself does not need anything for existence or subsistence. Allah has
his ways of doing things. And the question of how Allah created things, or what
his sunnan of creation are, is a matter that we can know through
revelation and observation, or not know at all because of limitations of our
power of reason. The next section deals with the nature of revelation.
The
Definitive/Speculative(4)
Classification
Islam
is based on Divine revelation; namely, the Qur’an and the authentic Prophetic
traditions. These textual sources have a layer of meanings that is so
self-evident and conclusive that no two persons of sound intellect and proper
understanding of Arabic language disagree upon. This layer constitutes the
foundations of the faith, the basic tenets of the Islamic creed, and the eternal
and immutable core. But Divine revelation is language and language is inherently
ambiguous. Therefore, in addition to the definitive layer of meaning there are
many speculative layers that are open to a process of interpretation to be
undertaken in conformity to the definitives and the rules of logic and Arabic
language(5).
In
order to assess whether an idea is consistent with Islam, we investigate it in
the light of the Islamic sources. An idea is inconsistent with Islam if it
contradicts a definitive of the faith, or if it cannot be reconciled with any
plausible interpretation(6). Before
embarking on this consistency check, we need also to define properly the idea
under investigation.
What
Is Evolution?
According
to the theory of evolution, changes take place in the living organism by chance,
i.e., with no forethought to the eventual needs of the living organism. These
changes are acted upon by natural selection which promotes what is beneficial to
the living organism and demotes, or eliminates, what is harmful(7).
A question arises as to what we mean by chance. If we mean that things really
take place haphazardly, then this would imply that humans are the blind
byproduct of the evolutionary processes. That conclusion is in direct
contradiction with the absolute divine wisdom, which means that Allah acts
wisely and purposefully.
The
Qur’an teaches us that life was created by Allah as a test for humans who have
free will, i.e., the ability to choose. Humans are required to have iman
(belief and conviction in and about Allah) and do `amal (i.e., have their
iman reflected in a righteous course of conduct vis-à-vis Allah, fellow
humans, and the environment). The creation of humans, and their existence on
Earth(8), is a deliberate divine act not
an unguided, purposeless event.
But
chance can be understood as a methodology(9),
i.e., as a way of describing observed systems. After all, it is absurd to assume
that chance causes. Chance describes; chance does not cause. Even in normal
linguistic definitions, when we say that two persons meet by chance, we do not
mean that they are acting haphazardly in life. Given this understanding of
chance, it is possible to consider evolution as the divine way of creating life
on Earth, as we already accept the known law of gravity as a model for the way
the cosmic order is held together. The validity of such consideration depends on
two other steps, however; first, to understand the Qur’anic verses and
prophetic traditions related to the story of creation in the light of evolution,
and second to scientifically investigate the adequacy of evolution.
Evolution
and the Qur’an
I
am unqualified to undertake the task of checking whether there are plausible
interpretations of the Qur’anic verses and Prophetic traditions that are
consistent with the evolutionary account. This mission requires, as a first
step, gathering together all the verses and authentic Prophetic
traditions that pertain to the issue of creation(10).
Instead, I only touch upon a couple of verses that are evoked to argue for the
compatibility or lack thereof between evolution and Islamic texts.
Evolution
is a scientific theory that, before attempting to employ it to
understand the sunnan of Allah in creation, should be
investigated using the internal logic of scientific inquiry and
well-established scientific methodologies.
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The
Qur’an says in (38:75) about Prophet Adam, ﴾whom I created with My two
hands?﴿ Though this verse is sometimes used as an argument against
evolution, it does not categorically negate the possibility of the emergence of
humans via some evolutionary process. The description ﴾created with My
two hands﴿ can be a figurative expression of Allah’s special concern
for this particular creation(11).
On
the other hand, the Qur’an says in (2:30), ﴾The Lord said to the
angels, ‘I will create a khalifah(12)
on Earth.’ They said: ‘How do You install someone one who makes mischief and
sheds blood? While we praise your mercy and glorify (Your Name)?’ He said,
‘I know what you do not know.’ ﴿ Some people take this to mean that
the angels were referring to already existing beings on earth that were
spreading corruption, and that when Allah said “khalifah,” He was
referring to a successor creation. Nevertheless, there are other possibilities
such as that God made the angels know, or that they predicted, that a limited
being with free will is likely to misuse or abuse his capacity to choose. The
word “khalifah” in the verse has multiple plausible meanings: khalifah
of Allah, having the capacity to reproduce and produce khalifah, khalifah
of some other beings, etc. And some scholars are of the opinion that it means
all this simultaneously.
The
point is that the verses that are often used by Muslims as clear-cut evidence
for or against evolution are not conclusive. The Qur’anic language is rich
with meanings and implications. In order to carry out the interpretive exercise
properly, all the textual evidence must be gathered and analyzed
objectively.
Adequacy
of Evolution
Evolution
is a scientific theory that, before attempting to employ it to understand the sunnan
of Allah in creation, should be investigated using the internal logic of
scientific inquiry and well-established scientific methodologies. The most basic
question is whether the theory of evolution really delivers an adequate
explanation of the complexity of life. Given the space constraints of this
article, it is impossible to discuss all the alleged evidence supporting the
theory. However, what is notable is that the theory has not provided any
detailed account for the emergence of the complex organs, structures, and
mechanisms observed in all living forms. This does not mean that there are no
partial attempts aimed at that objective, nor does it mean the falsity of
evolution.
The
root of this problem can be understood as follows. Assume that to have a
structure fitted to the environment, the organism needs two changes. These two
changes may be two point mutations or two modifications to two already existing
structures that do different tasks and which will make them come together to
perform a new function(13). Now the
simultaneous occurrence of the two required changes, on the basis of
Neo-Darwinism, has an extremely small probability(14).
Serial occurrence, i.e., one change after the other, does not solve the problem.
Also, in the serial scenario, there is an additional problem if the occurrence
of any of the two changes without the other causes a disadvantage to the
organism. The Neo-Darwinian theory of evolution appeals to a series of slight
successive variations under the presumption that, at every step, it is more
likely that the occurring change would be beneficial to the organism, or at
least not harmful. If that is the case, then it means that fitness as a function
of the genetic makeup of the organism has a very special form of dependence that
requires an explanation of its own(15).
Final
Comments
What
is more important than reaching a conclusive opinion regarding the relationship
between evolution and Islam is to understand the nature of religion and science.
Religion is defined by the language of divine revelation and addresses mainly
the “why” questions, which are the most fundamental questions regarding our
existence. The religious language has a clear-cut layer of meaning that is not
open to interpretation. For example, that Allah is one, that He is all-powerful
and absolutely wise, that nothing is done by Him haphazardly or in vain, that
nothing is beyond His control, and so forth. In addition to this definitive
layer, there are many layers of meaning that open to interpretation.
Interpretation itself is not a process without rules and regulations, and is
constrained by the definitives, and the rules of logic and language.
Science,
on the other hand, is not about absolutes. The domain of science, albeit huge,
is limited. Science is ever-changing. And the eternal truths of the Qur’an
cannot be subjected to the science. Science may help us understand the Qur’an
and may help us understand the ways of Allah operating in the universe.
Nonetheless, we must keep in mind that this understanding depends on the best
available evidence and this can change over time. Deifying science confuses the
roles of science which deals with the “how” and religion which deals with
the “why,” and sometimes the “how.”
Rejecting
science out of hand is not a good practice. For Allah always describes the
believers as “the people of sound intellect”(16).
These are people who always ponder over the signs of Allah, and do not pay
attention to science only when it appears to confirm their preexisting beliefs.
In addition, twisting divine truth to suit the fallible science and making false
assertions about Allah, such as that He does not leave signs in the universe
that challenge us to think, reflect, and respond in faith, are detrimental to
both science, turning it into a dogmatic endeavor rooted in metaphysical
naturalism, and religion, rendering it an irrelevant source of knowledge about
ourselves, our universe, and our Lord.
This
article reflects solely the opinion of the author.
The
science editor invites you to send your comments, thoughts, analyses,
criticisms, and otherwise about the theory of evolution and its relationship
with religions for online publication. To do so, send an e-mail to the editor at
ScienceTech@islam-online.net.
**
Ahmed K. Sultan Salem
is a PhD student in the Space, Telecommunications, and Radioscience Laboratory
(STARLab) at Stanford University. Your emails to will be forwarded to him by
contacting the editor at: ScienceTech@islam-online.net.
1
- By theory of evolution, I mainly refer to the Neo-Darwinian model which is
explained below.
2
- ﴾For you shall not find any alteration in the sunnah of Allah; and you
shall not find any change in the sunnah of Allah﴿ (35:43). Sunnan is the
plural of sunnah, which literally means the course of conduct.
3
- Other schools, such as Mu`tazili school of theology, openly accepted the
concept of a natural law. They differed from the materialists and naturalists in
their belief that these laws were created by Allah and are not independent
forces. Note that the different schools, despite the disagreements, firmly
asserted divine omnipotence and that Allah is the ultimate reality.
4
- In Arabic: qat`i/zanni.
5
- This issue is thoroughly investigated in the books of Usul al-Fiqh, the
principles of jurisprudence. For an English source on this highly interesting
and important topic, please refer to Hashim Kamali’s The Principles of Islamic
Jurisprudence.
6
- This method is general in scope and not limited to the theory of evolution.
7
- “Beneficial” means giving an advantage to the organism in its struggle for
survival and reproduction in its specific environment.
8
- The existence of humans on Earth was not because Prophet Adam disobeyed Allah
and ate from the tree. Allah wanted to create a deputy on Earth from the
beginning. Adam and Eve in the Garden was training for the test of life. They
were asked to enjoy the blessings of the Garden but to avoid the tree, which
symbolizes the doable commandments of God. Because of (a) external temptations
from Satan, and (b) internal weaknesses, they disobeyed Allah. It was a slip.
They asked Allah for forgiveness and He forgave them. And the test of life
began.
9
- The belief that chance is ontologically real is a metaphysical not an
empirical position. That many scientists believe in that shows that the
methodological naturalism of science sometimes degenerates into metaphysical
naturalism masqueraded as science.
10
- Of course, by being selective, one can reach any conclusion he/she wants.
11
- The vast majority of Muslim scholars realized from the early days of the
various Islamic sciences that figurative interpretations are indispensable for
understanding the Qur’anic text. There are some Qur’anic verses which, if
taken literally, produce meanings that contradict the definitives and the main
themes of the book. For example, verse (33:57) says, ﴾Those who annoy or
harm Allah and His Messenger.﴿ Certainly, no one can annoy or harm the
Supreme Being. What is meant by the verse is to “speak ill of” or “harm
the cause of,” etc., as these are legitimate interpretations that conform to
the rules of Arabic language. Another example can be verse (45:34), ﴾It
will also be said: ‘This Day We will forget you as you forgot the meeting of
this Day of yours!’ ﴿ But Allah does not forget. The verse means that
Allah will forsake them or exclude them from His mercy because of their
corruption and persistence in evildoing. The general rule is that metaphorical
interpretations are valid if being too literal generates contradictory meanings
that conflict with what is mentioned explicitly in the text.
12
- Khalifah has the meanings of vicegerent, successor, etc.
13
- Here I ignore the emergence of these preexisting structures. Also, in reality,
numerous changes are required, not two.
14
- The probability of two statistically independent events is the product of each
respective probability. Since Neo-Darwinism asserts the occurrence of changes
with no forethought to the eventual need of the living organism, it entails
statistical independence of the events.
15
- One explanation may be that life was front-loaded with tools that have aided
in the process of evolution. This transfers the problem to the field of the
origins-of-life, which is, strictly speaking, not part of evolution, because
evolution relies on natural selection that presumes the existence of replicators
in the first place. Some scientists believe that the origins of life belong to
the domain of the unknowable, such as Hubert Yockey in his book Information
Theory, Evolution, and the Origins of Life. Another explanation, which is
consistent with the view of chance presented in this article, is that there are
some deterministic biochemical laws at action.
16
- ‘Aolou al-Albab in Arabic.
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