On February 16, 2005 , 128 countries all over the world became formally bounded by the Kyoto Protocol. After seven years of study, negotiations and preparations, the global environmental system has finally adopted an international agreement that aims to reduce global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and improve the ecological system by the year 2010.

In a United Nations press release regarding the scheduled entry into force, UN Secretary-General Kofi Anan underscored the Protocol’s implementation. “This is a historic step forward in the world's efforts to combat a truly global threat.  Most important, it ends a long period of uncertainty.  Those countries that have ratified the Protocol, and which have been trying to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases even before its entry into force, now have a legally binding obligation to do so,” he said.

The Road to   Kyoto

It was through the findings of the scientists tasked to look at the global warming conditions that sound scientific knowledge regarding climate change emerged, which in turn instigated response from the international community. As the timeline below illustrates, worldwide efforts have been pushing for many years for international cooperation in addressing the problem of global warming.

1988

• The International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was created, which brought together experts from all over the world to study global warming and its effects on the world. Established by the UN Environmental Program (UNEP) and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), the IPCC asked policymakers to assess the possible economic and sociological impacts of climate change.

• The Toronto Conference on the Changing Atmosphere was held, where former prime ministers Brian Mulroney of   Canada  and Gro Garlem Bruntland of Norway  led world representatives to agree on a 20 percent cut based on their 1988 GHG emissions by 2005. The conference described climate change as “second only to global nuclear war.”

1990

• The first IPCC report was published, confirming the occurrence of global warming and pinpointing significant human activities as its cause.

1992

• The Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro,  Brazil was held, which created the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Aimed at stabilizing 1990 greenhouse gas emission levels by 2000. Countries also agreed to meet each year to review the Convention through the Conference of Parties (COP) meeting.

1995

• The first COP was held in  Berlin, Germany where a review of the Rio Convention’s adequacy was done.

• The IPCC published its second report stating that “the balance of evidence” pointed to a “discernable human influence on the global climate system.”

1996

• The IPCC statements grew more intense, stating that “climate change represented a danger to humanity” and that “discernable human influence on global climate…projected change in climate [that] will result in significant, often adverse, impacts on many ecological systems and socio-economic sectors, including food supply and water resources and on human health.”

• The second COP was held in  Geneva,  Switzerland.

1997

• The COP was held in Kyoto, Japan where countries raised new goals for the Rio Convention. Finding the Rio provisions impractical, they placed the reduction targets at 5 percent of 1990 GHG levels by 2008 – 2012.

• Some countries had specific targets such as the United States(7 percent), Canada (6 percent) and the European Union (8 percent). Among EU members, Germany committed to a 25 percent specific target while the United Kingdom’s was at 15 percent.

1998

• The COP IV was held in Buenos Aires , Argentina . It produced the Buenos Aires Plan of Action, with the international community agreeing on setting the guidelines and rules needed for the implementation of the Kyoto Protocol.  Kyoto mechanisms such as emissions trading, carbon sinks, joint implementation and the clean development mechanism were established. The countries agreed that these mechanisms would be finalized at the next COP meeting to be held in Canada  or at the latest, by the year 2000.

2000

• The COP was held at The Hague ,  Netherlands . The meeting failed due to disagreement over “carbon sinks.” A follow-up meeting was held in Ottawa , Canada where discussions also failed.

2001

• COP VI was held in Bonn , Germany where countries (except the  United States ) finally agreed on the Kyoto Protocol through the Bonn Protocol. At this point, countries must officially ratify the Protocol.

• The Marrakesh Accords designed a system to fulfill the Protocol’s provisions through establishing rules and regulations for its implementation.

The Protocol

Through the Kyoto Protocol, legally binding obligations for developed countries to lower their GHG emissions were set out. They were given six GHGs to reduce, namely: carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and sulfur hexafluoride. Under the provisions of the Kyoto Protocol, industrialized countries are required to reduce their combined emissions of the six major GHGs enumerated to below 1990 levels during the period from 2008 to 2012.

It provided three flexibility mechanisms to achieve its emissions targets, providing countries with cost-effective means. The Joint Implementation and Emissions Trading mechanisms involved agreements between two Annex I (developed or industrialized) countries. The Emissions Trading involves the buying and selling of emissions credits among developed/industrialized countries. The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) provided joint projects between developed countries who will establish environmental projects in developing countries in return for CERs. CERs are certified emission reduction credits that are earned depending on the kind of project and its reached targets. An international CDM Executive Board (EB) has been set up to facilitate project approvals, approve project methodologies (operational means of CDM projects) and soon after, the issuance of CERs. The CDM Executive Board will maintain a registry for the issuance and distribution of CDM credits.

In the CDM, approved methodologies (by the Executive Board) have been set up to guide project developers who wish to participate. At the moment, project registry is continuous and is being acted upon. Project developers must submit a project design document (PDD) to the Executive Board. Through the Marrakesh Accords, a designated national authority (DNA) is required of any country who would like to participate in CDM. The DNA acts as the national representative of every country to the EB. An endorsement from the DNA is required for project approval at EB level as well as the issuance of the CERs.  A highlight of CDM project approval considerations is the agreement of a project’s objectives to a country’s sustainable development goal.

  Russia Signs In, US Still Out

In many developing countries, efforts to address climate change have also been successful.  In countries like the  Philippines , national authorities have been set up as the one-stop-shop and international entity for the country’s communication to the executive board of the CDM, one of the mechanisms under the Kyoto Protocol. For Climate Change Secretariat Executive Secretary Joke Waller-Hunter, “A period of uncertainty has closed. Climate change is ready to take its place again at the top of the global agenda.”

A view of traffic on a freeway out of the Sydney central business district. REUTERS/David Gray

Last November 2004, the  Russian Federation  signed the instrument of ratification of the Protocol.  Russia  ’s ratification leaves only four industrialized countries out of the Protocol, namely  Australia  ,  Liechtenstein  ,  Monaco  and the  United States  . According to UNEP, these countries account for over one third of GHG emissions from industrialized countries while the  United States  alone accounts for 36.2% of global emissions. Further, it enumerated developing countries like  Brazil  ,  China  ,  India  and  Indonesia  as developing countries who are parties to the Protocol with no specific emission targets.

To underscore  Russia  ’s ratification to the Protocol, 55 industrialized countries were needed for it to be entered into force. The 55 ratifications were required to represent 55 percent of the world’s emissions and participation in reducing it. The rules did not limit ratifications to developed countries, making the Protocol a possibility without  US  cooperation. President Putin’s agreement to the Protocol will in turn gain  Russia  the European Union’s support for its bid to join the World Trade Organization. Top leaders from the world praised  Russia  ’s move with Japanese Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi calling it “a fresh start for policies to combat global warming.”  United Kingdom Prime Minister Tony Blair stated, “I welcome the leadership of President Putin and his government on this critical global issue.” And to demonstrate the EU’s support, Blair added that he is looking forward to meeting with Putin at the Group of Eight meeting next year (2006) where he said that “climate change will be a major theme.” Japanese Environment Minister Yuriko Koike said that  Russia  ’s move will “continuously urge the  US  ,  Australia  and other countries which have not ratified the protocol” to do so.

The call for the  US  to ratify the Protocol is still unheeded. President Bush offered an alternative way of addressing global warming. In his plan, his government will offer incentives to businesses that will voluntarily reduce US GHG emissions by 4.5 percent in ten years. Asian and European countries have criticized the  US  for not agreeing to the Protocol. According to President Bush, the Protocol has unrealistic goals that could damage the American economy.

Now That the Wait Is Over

Japanese citizens march in a parade from Kyoto City Hall in Kyoto. REUTERS/Kimimasa Mayama

UN Secretary-General Kofi Anan illustrated the upcoming benefits of the Protocol’s entry into force in his press release upon  Russia  ’s submission of its ratification. “Businesses that have been exploring the realm of green technology now have a strong signal about the market viability of their products and services. And the financial community and insurance industry, which have been trying to “put a price” on the risks associated with climate change, now have a stronger basis for their decision-making on incentives and corporate performance.”

According to the United Nations, the IPCC recently reported that humanity’s emissions of carbon dioxide and other GHGs will raise global temperatures by 1.4 -5.8 °C by the end of the century. Further, it is predicted that this will affect weather patterns, ecosystems and climate events. Even now, global warming is being felt through the shrinking of the sea-ice glaciers in both the Arctic and the Antarctic areas, in addition to change of weather patterns and seasons globally.  

For now, the international movement that spearheaded the movement for the Kyoto Protocol and other environmental means are looking forward to reaping the benefits of these agreements. After its entry into force, what is left now is action and cooperation among those who pledged their commitment. This call is echoed by UN Secretary-General Kofi Anan when he called for cooperation, “All countries must now do their utmost to combat climate change and to keep it from undermining our efforts to achieve the Millennium Development Goals. I therefore take this opportunity to urge those developed countries who have not ratified the Protocol to ratify it and limit their emissions.”

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* Joyce Loanzon Reyes is currently a technical assistant for the United Nations Development Programme Clean Development Mechanism Philippine Project Management Office. She is a graduate of International Studies from Miriam College,  Philippines. She participated in the Model United Nations of the Far West in San Francisco, Californina for her internship. She worked for the USAID and the Presidential Task Force on the Reconstruction of  Iraq  . You may reach her at joycelreyes@yahoo.com

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