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The moon is the earth’s dark satellite, visible only
by reflecting the light of the sun. The visible area of the moon changes
daily according to the angle formed by line between the sun, the earth
and the moon, which results in the cycle of lunar phases.
The Islamic calendar is based on this natural
phenomenon, which is used to determine the beginning of each lunar month
in compliance with the Qur’an (2:189), “They ask thee about the new
moons. Say, ‘they are but signs to mark fixed points of time for
people [to manage their affairs], and [to identify the time of]
hajj.’” Of particular concern to Muslims are the beginnings of the
fasting month of Ramadan and the month of hajj, the pilgrimage season.
The first day of the lunar month is identified by the sighting of the
waxing crescent, after sunset on the twenty-ninth or the thirtieth day
of the foregoing month.
Everywhere in the Muslim world, sighting the waxing
crescent is important. In addition to setting the calendar, it also
determines the dates of important religious occasions. But sighting the
crescent has always been a controversial issue in the Islamic world. In
some places, it can be spotted easily whereas in others it may not be.
There have been incidents of inaccurate sighting reports. Such
incongruities call for more efforts on the part of Muslim astronomers to
put an end to differences in this regard.
The moon, like the planets, has a slightly elliptical
orbit. To determine its apparent position, particularly as a waxing
crescent, several measurements have to be made including its distance
from the sun, its position in relation to a specific observer on earth,
and the exact time of its rising and setting.
Detailed tabular calculations of the motion of the moon
were produced in the nineteenth century by the British-born American
mathematician and astronomer, Ernest William Brown. These tables were
later improved by twentieth century astronomers who developed equations
to determine the exact position of the moon.
Muslim astronomers, proceeding from Kepler’s laws,
have developed computer software to identify the position of the earth
in its orbital movement round the sun. The point is to determine
accurately the time of sunset and, consequently, the exact position of
the crescent using the equations derived from Brown’s lunar tables.
Muslim astronomers known for their work on calculating
the lunar months include, most notably, Al-Battani (850-929), Al-Bayrouni
(973-1048) and Nassir al-Din Al-Tousi (1258-1274). In the nineteenth
century, an Egyptian army general, Mohamed Mokhtar Pasha (1846-1897),
produced a valuable work on tabular correlations of the Muslim calendar,
the Gregorian calendar and the ancient Middle Eastern luni-solar system
of time reckoning. The tables cover the Muslim calendar from years 1
through 1500 and the matching dates under the other two systems.
According to Islamic Shari’a, to establish the
beginning of the new lunar month, the crescent must be sighted by the
naked eye under specific conditions. The sighting may, however, be
influenced by a number of factors including:
-
the
life-length of the crescent, and the angle it forms with the sun;
-
the height
of the crescent relative to the horizon line at the time of sunset;
-
the distance
between the earth and the moon;
-
weather
conditions and the degree of visibility.
The first two factors are essential. The third is
partially important, since the distance between the earth and the moon
changes by approximately ± 4%, which has a negligible effect on
visibility. The fourth factor depends on variable local conditions at
the time of sighting the crescent.
The following two conditions for sighting the crescent
were set by the Fiqh (Muslim jurisprudence) committee of the Islamic
Conference held in Istanbul in 1978:
When these two most essential conditions are fulfilled,
the following day shall be the first day of the new month.
The motion of the moon can now be calculated with great
precision, but the beginning of every new lunar month remains a problem.
Surveys will have to be conducted in various places in the Islamic world
for several years to allow for sufficient statistical analysis. If this
is done, differences between Muslim countries in marking religious
occasions may be finally overcome.
Whenever faced with two or more options, Prophet
Muhammad (SAW) always chose the one that was most accessible to his
faithful followers. The Qur’an (9:128) describes him as being
extremely commiserating and willing to spare the Muslims suffering and
hardship. The Qur’an (2:185) also tells us that God intends every
facility for the faithful, and does not will that they be put to
unaffordable tasks in life. Islamic Shari’a was therefore satisfied
with what was within the means of the Prophet’s companions. This,
however, does not mean that recently developed scientific methods are to
be excluded. This seemingly contradiction of views calls for a closer
look.
Early Muslim scholars were almost unanimous on rejecting
astronomical methods during their time because, to them, there was no
clear line of demarcation between astronomy and astrology. However,
modern astronomy is different. It draws on spherical geometry and
celestial mechanics, two modern branches of science that enabled man to
land on the moon over a quarter of a century ago.
According to Dr. Mostafa Al-Zarqa, a leading Muslim
scholar, the debate on the legitimacy of astronomical calculation is the
greatest oddity in modern jurisprudence, remaining hot at a time when
man has navigated the vast expanses of the universe, and landed on the
moon. At the present time, landing on the moon is no longer considered a
great feat.
All relevant Hadith suggest that sighting the moon with
the naked eye was the only method available back then because the
majority of the Muslim population was illiterate. This by no means
excluded verifiable scientific methods that are capable of yielding
extremely accurate results. The naked-eye method is perfectly acceptable
when conditions of clear visibility are available. Otherwise, there is
no reason why scientific calculations should not be relied upon. It is a
shame that there is sometimes a three-day discrepancy between Muslim
countries in deciding the beginning and the end of Ramadan.
The position of early Muslim jurisprudents to reject
guessing and intuition as sources of reliable knowledge on this
particular issue is understandable. Astronomy was far from developed at
that early stage of Islam, Al-Zarqa explains.
The Fatwa (Muslim religious opinion) House in Egypt has
recently decided that the naked-eye sighting method is the standard
method of establishing the beginning and the end of lunar months.
Astronomical measurements, the House says, may be used only as a
supportive tool, not as an alternative. But sighting reports that
contradict accurate measurements must be rejected because Islam exhorts
its followers to resort to the proper channels of learning and
knowledge.
Meanwhile, with the approach of every new Ramadan, the
same controversy around deciding its first and last days is renewed.
Muslim countries continue to begin and end Ramadan on different days,
and to celebrate other important religious occasions on different days
because of a lack of coordination and standardization.
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