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Astronomy
practiced in ancient civilizations was associated with
astrology and fortune telling. This association cast shades
of doubt on the practice in the minds of early Muslims.
However, with the establishment of the Islamic civilization,
which rejected astrology and fortune telling as
contradictory to Islamic beliefs, astronomy was separated
and recognized as a discipline based on scientific
principles. This separation was not accidental: it was based
on scientific experiments, analogy and deduction, which
Muslims applied in order to meet their need for determining
the qiblah (direction of Makkah) and prayer times.
All major mosques accordingly appointed astronomers, who
used instruments invented by Muslims.
In
ancient civilizations, astronomy was shrouded in mystery,
but during the Abbasid period, particularly during the
caliphate of Harun Ar-Rashid, this science gained a special
status; this period witnessed the unprecedented construction
of large observatories with permanent structures that housed
huge, carefully crafted instruments. A sizable number of
astronomers were associated with these observatories, which
were looked after by the state.
According
to Ayden Sayali, an outstanding Turkish researcher who
studied astronomical observatories, Islam gave rise to an
environment that supported the institutionalization of
observatories by creating conditions that were conducive to
their establishment and development. Astronomy enjoyed a
special status in the Muslim world, and Muslims were keenly
interested in direct observation, accurate measurement and
mathematical theories. Muslims scholars were inclined to
specialization and had empirical tendencies. Astronomers
crafted larger instruments and preferred to work in teams.
Observatories
during the Al-Ma’mun era were used for specific research
programs. The foremost objective of the astronomers who
worked at these early observatories was to draw up
astronomical tables based on recent observations of the sun
and the moon. Apart from the limitations of these programs,
the management and financing methods used at these
observatories were somewhat undeveloped. Because of the
limited tasks assigned to Ma’mun’s observatories set up
in Ash-Shimasia and Qasioon, they cannot be compared with
the more modernized observatories that were later
established in the Muslim world.
The
more developed Islamic observatories, which were
administratively more organized, were built 1-½ centuries
after Al-Ma’mun. When the Sharaf Ad-Dawlah Observatory was
established, a director was appointed to manage it, and the
observation program was broadened to include all planets. It
is believed that this program was implemented in two stages,
as there is evidence indicating that early observations were
limited to fast-moving planets along with the sun and the
moon.
The
primary objective of this observatory was to draw up new
astronomical tables of all the planets based on the most
recent observations. Owing to the advancement in this field,
there was an inclination towards making instruments that
increased in size over time and for appointing efficient
specialized staff. The development of observatories
strengthened the belief that it was the caliphs and kings
who were originally behind the establishment of
observatories as state institutions.
The
work achieved at the observatory built by the Seljuk Sultan
Malik Shah in Baghdad marked a new phase in observation
development. There is not much information available about
the work done at this observatory, but it remained in
service for over 20 years, a relatively long period compared
to other observatories. However, astronomers at the time
felt that a period of at least 30 years was required to
complete any astronomical achievement.
The
Marageh Observatory
This
observatory, considered one of the most important
observatories in Islamic history, was built in the seventh
century A.H. (after Hijrah), making this century accordingly
the most important era in the history of Islamic
observatories. This observatory, the ruins of which can
still be seen today, was built outside the city of Marageh,
close to the city of Tabriz in Iran. The observatory was
built by Holako’s brother, Manjo, who was interested in
mathematics and astronomy. He entrusted Jamal Ad-Din Bin
Muhammad Bin Az-Zazidi Al-Bukhari with the establishment of
this observatory and sought the assistance of a large number
of scientists, such as Nasr Ad-Din At-Tusi, `Ali bin `Umar
Al-Ghazwini, Muayid Ad-Din Al-‘Ardi, Fakhr Ad-Din Al-Maraghi, and
Muhiyd-Din Al-Maghribi.
The
Marageh Observatory is considered the first observatory to
utilize an endowment fund that was set up by Muslims,
through land and property, to ensure the continuous running
of the observatory, which remained in operation throughout
the rule of seven consecutive sultans who maintained it
until 1316 A.H.
This
observatory was also an important learning center for
students who studied astronomy and learned how to operate
astronomical instruments. It also had a large library that
contained thousands of manuscripts on various disciplines.
The
Samarkand Observatory
This
observatory was established in Sarmarkand by Ulugh Beg, the
grandson of Tamerlane (Timur the Lame). The location of this
observatory was discovered in 1908, when Russian
archaeologist Viatken discovered an endowment document that
stated the observatory’s exact location. While working at
the excavation site, he found one of the most important
astronomical instruments used at the observatory: a large
arch that had been used to determine midday.
The
yard of this 21-metre-high observatory mounted a hill with a
rocky foot. The area of the hilltop was 170m (north-south)
by 85m (east-west). The garden as well as the staff
residences that surrounded the observatory’s main building
are indicative of its grandeur. The archaeological findings
also showed that the building was cylindrical in shape, with
an elaborate, well-designed interior.
Viatken
was of the opinion that the destruction of the observatory
was not caused by natural elements and that it could have
partially resulted from the removal of its marble slabs,
which were used in the construction of other buildings.
Using the dome of the observatory, astronomers developed the
Ulugh Beg Tables, which are considered one of the most
accurate astronomical tables in the world. The dome had
inscriptions that marked the degrees, minutes, seconds, and
tenths of a second of the epicycles, the seven planets, and
the fixed stars, as well as the earth and its regions,
mountains, and deserts. Among the astronomers who worked at
this observatory was Ghiyath Ad-Din Al-Khashi, who excelled
in mechanical modeling of celestial movement.
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