Annihilation
at the Order of God
From Just War to Holy War
Sometimes Just but Never
Holy
Playing the Empire Game
From Holy War to Holy Peace
Foundations of Holy Peace
Peace is holy, war is not. Nevertheless, holy
war is today a main theme in the Western media. Wrongly seen by
Westerners as an Islamic innovation, for Muslims it is a bitter
reminder of the Crusades of the 12th and 13th centuries. But the
Abrahamic faiths (Judaism, Christianity, and Islam) have more to say
about holy peace than holy war, and this is what we need to better
explore in our religious and political discourse.
Annihilation at the
Order of God
The roots of holy war are to be found in
the Torah (which constitutes the first five books of the Hebrew Bible
or Christian Old Testament) where the Israelites' experience after
their Exodus from Egypt was presented in a bloody sacredness. Though
the term holy war is not used in the Old Testament, other close terms
were used such as "the battles of the Lord" (1 Samuel 25:28)
and "the wars of the Lord" (Numbers 21:14).
Thousands of innocent people, including
women and children, were indiscriminately slaughtered in order to
prepare the ground for the Israelites' entry into the Holy Land. These
Israelite wars of extermination were not in any sense justifiable
self-defense, but an offensive war at the order of God — a God Who
is presented in the Torah as a warrior: "The Lord is a
warrior" (Exodus 15:3); and a soldier fighting on behalf of
Israel: "The Lord will fight for you" (Exodus 14:14).
The idea of God supporting His people in
the battlefield is not strange in any of the three Abrahamic faiths,
nor is territorial expansion novel in the history of Christianity or
Islam. What makes the Hebrew experience scripturally distinctive in
this context is the legitimization of the indiscriminate extermination
of a whole population through slaying every human soul in the defeated
towns. The Jews believed they were given a divine order to kill every
human being who became an obstacle in their way: "in the cities
of the nations the Lord your God is giving you as an inheritance, do
not leave alive anything that breathes. Completely destroy them—the
Hittites, Amorites, Canaanites, Perizzites, Hivites and Jebusites—as
the Lord your God has commanded you" (Deuteronomy 20:16–17).
The warrior-God of the Torah warned the
Israelites against showing any mercy or pity: "When the Lord your
God brings you into the land you are entering to possess and drives
out before you many nations … then you must destroy them totally.
Make no treaty with them, and show them no mercy" (Deuteronomy
7:1–2). This "divine" order was followed to the letter:
"At that time we took all his towns and completely destroyed
them—men, women and children. We left no survivors"
(Deuteronomy 2:34).
Illustrating the texts of the Torah,
British scholar Karen Armstrong concluded that "in a Jewish holy
war, there was no question of coexistence, mutual respect, or peace
treaties. … When the Jews had to establish themselves in the
Promised Land, ordinary morality ceased to apply" (8).
From Just War to Holy
War
The idea of holy war was not conceivable in
Christianity for almost a thousand years because Jesus was pacifist.
But the destruction of the Roman Empire pushed Saint Augustine and
other Christian theologians to look for scriptural justification for
waging war. They developed a concept of just war strikingly similar to
that of Islam.
|
The idea of holy war was not conceivable
in Christianity for almost a thousand years because Jesus was
pacifist. |
Only a few verses in the New Testament
would help a warmonger, such as these verses that make Jesus (peace be
upon him) say "Do not suppose that I have come to bring peace to
the earth; I did not come to bring peace, but a sword" (Matthew
10:34); "I have come to bring fire on the earth, and how I wish
it were already kindled!" (Luke 12:49); "Do not think I came
to bring peace on earth; No, I tell you, but division" (Luke
12:51); "those enemies of mine who did not want me to be king
over them — bring them here and kill them in front of me" (Luke
19:27).
Some non-Christians took these verses as
evidence of moral deficiency or logical inconsistency of the message
of Jesus (peace be upon him), but most Christian theologians
interpreted these texts metaphorically or understood them as an
apocalyptic prediction, not a moral approval of violence. The
"sword" and the "fire" in these verses were
interpreted as the powerful word of Jesus and his spiritual light. The
whole context of the words and deeds of Jesus (peace be upon him)
supports such peaceful interpretations of the war language of the
Gospels, though Jesus in his Second Coming will be far from pacifist
— at least if we take seriously what some American evangelicals are
saying about him today.
The criteria that make a war just in
Christian classical theology include just cause, right intention,
proportionality, probability of success, and immunity of
non-combatants. These are very important principles from the moral and
practical perspectives. But Christians did not give much attention to
these principles during their Crusades against the Islamic world and
the Byzantine Empire in the 12th and 13th centuries, and during their
expansion throughout the New World and beyond. The guide to the
Western wars since the 12th century is the extermination of Joshua and
David, not the theology of Saint Augustine or Thomas Aquinas.
The Gospel of Jesus was not helpful to
justify the new wars of extermination, but Christians found what they
needed in the Old Testament (which constitutes about 75% of the
Christian holy book). The initiators of the Crusades, such as Pope
Urban II and Pope Innocent III, used the Old Testament more than the
New Testament Gospels as a reference to justify their call for
crusading — a call that led to two centuries of atrocities against
Muslims of Palestine; brought suffering to Jews, Syrian Christians,
and Byzantines; and devastated the Cathars of southern France who were
seen as heretics. Needless to say that the barbarity of these 12th-
and 13th-century Crusades left a deep wound that has ever since
poisoned relations between the Islamic world and the West.
Sometimes Just but
Never Holy
The theology of holy war has no place in
Islam, and terms like holy war and war of God do not
appear in any Qur'anic verses nor in any Prophetic hadith. But the
concept of just war was a part of Islamic teaching since its
inception. In Islam, God's grace is not to be separated from His
justice, and the right of self-defense is a self-evident right.
Therefore, war in Islam is a means to establish justice, but never a
holy act.
Armstrong sees Islam as a middle way
between the pacifism of Jesus and the annihilation of Joshua.
Rejecting a common misconception in the West, Armstrong affirms that
"Islam does not justify a total aggressive war of extermination,
as the Torah does in the first five books of the Bible. A more
realistic religion than Christianity, Islam recognizes that war is
inevitable and sometimes a positive duty" (36). The Qur'an speaks
of three grounds when it comes justification of war:
|
Armstrong sees Islam as a middle way
between the pacifism of Jesus and the annihilation of Joshua. |
First, fighting in self-defense. [To
those against whom war is made, permission is given to fight, because
they are wronged; and verily, Allah is most powerful for their aid;
those who have been expelled from their homes in defiance of right,
for no cause except that they say "our Lord is Allah"]
(Al-Hajj 22:39–40).
Second, defending people who cannot
defend themselves from oppression and tyranny. [How should ye not
fight for the cause of Allah and of the feeble among men and of the
women and the children who are crying: Our Lord! Bring us forth from
out this town of which the people are oppressors! Oh, give us from Thy
presence some protecting friend! Oh, give us from Thy presence some
defender!] (An-Nisaa' 4:75).
Third, safeguarding religious
freedom by protecting houses of worship, regardless of the faith of
the worshipers. [Had not Allah checked one set of people by means
of another, there would surely have been pulled down monasteries,
churches, synagogues, and mosques, in which the name of Allah is
commemorated in abundant measure] (Al-Hajj 22:40).
The Qur'an explicitly forbids the expansive
use of the right of self-defense to initiate war: [Fight in the way
of Allah against those who fight against you, but begin not
hostilities. Lo! Allah loves not aggressors] (Al-Baqarah 2:190).
And Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) established war ethics that
strictly preserved non-combatants from the perils of war: "Do
not be treacherous. Do not mutilate. Do not kill children…" (Muslim)
Abu Bakr, his first successor in the leadership of the Muslim Ummah,
ordered his army thus: "Do not betray or be treacherous. Do not
mutilate. Do not kill the children, the aged, or the women. Do not cut
palm trees or fruitful trees. Do not slay a sheep, a cow, or a camel
except for your food. And you will come across people who confined
themselves to worship in monasteries; leave them alone to what they
devoted themselves for." (At-Tabari, volume 3, p. 213)
Playing the Empire Game
Someone might ask, if Islam is against
aggressive wars, then why was there this long history of Islamic
conquests that led to the establishment of an empire stretching from
the borders of China to the heart of Spain? The answer is that in a
world divided between empires, wars of expansion were not
illegitimate. Empires did not have legally defined borders, nor did
they have internationally agreed-upon norms of coexistence and
diplomatic relations. What was and remains illegitimate is to
annihilate the population or to convert them by force.
Islamic scripture did not ask Muslims to
invade other people's lands, but Muslims played the empire game like
anybody else when that game was the only available means of survival.
No Muslim believes today that imperial expansion and colonization is
justifiable because we are no longer living in a world of empires. The
international system of today's world, though ineffective and
manipulated by the powerful, is morally and legally binding because
without it, mankind would go back to the bloody logic of the empires.
|
History puts Muslims on the highest
level of nobility and humane treatment of the defeated. |
Muslims subjugated many nations to the
authority of their empire in the past, but they never coerced the
people to convert to Islam, despite the fact that Islam is a
proselytizing religion. The reason for this religious tolerance is
unequivocal Qur'anic verses: [Let there be no compulsion in
religion: truth stands out clear from falsehood] (Al-Baqarah
2:256); [Say (O Muhammad): This is the truth from the Lord of you
all. Then whoever wishes let him believe, and whoever wishes let him
disbelieve] (Al-Kahf 18:29). Moreover, Prophet Muhammad (peace be
upon him) is told in the Qur'an that his mission is to teach and
preach, not to impose or compel: [Remind them, for you are only a
reminder. You are not a coercer over them] (Al-Ghashiyah 88:21–22);
[You are not one to overawe them by force. So admonish with the Qur'an
those who fear My Warning!] (Qaf 50:45).
In terms of war ethics, and within the
traditions of the empires, history puts Muslims on the highest level
of nobility and humane treatment of the defeated. In his book La
Civilisation Arabe, the French historian and sociologist Gustav Le
Bon affirmed that the world had never known a conqueror more merciful
than Muslims.
From Holy War to Holy
Peace
Though the three monotheistic faiths found
one way or another to justify war for self-defense, they have much
more to say about holy peace than about holy war, and the sanctity of
the human life is the core of the teachings of all of these three
faiths. Despite the problematic texts of the Torah we quoted before, a
fair student of religion cannot ignore the fact that the oldest text
on the sacredness of human life in the Abrahamic legacy is a text from
the Torah, the fifth commandment that unambiguously warned "You
shall not murder" (Exodus 20:13). Peace is presented in the
Hebrew scripture as a great bounty from God, though it is not a
universal peace for all, but an exclusive peace for Israel: "But
those who turn to crooked ways the LORD will banish with the
evildoers. Peace be upon Israel (Psalm 125:5); "And may you live
to see your children's children. Peace be upon Israel" (Psalm
128:6).
In his famous Sermon on the Mount, Jesus
emphasizes the virtues of peace saying "Blessed are the
peacemakers" (Matthew 5:9) and telling his followers "Do not
resist an evil person. If someone strikes you on the right cheek, turn
to him the other also" (Mathew 5:39). God is repeatedly presented
in the New Testament as "the God of peace" (Romans 15:33 and
16:33; Hebrews 13:20; Philippians 4:9), "the God of love and
peace" (2 Corinthians 13:11) and the "Lord of peace" (2
Thessalonians 3:16). The New Testament unequivocally urges Christians
to "be at peace with each other" (Mark 9:50) and to live in
peace with other human beings: "If it is possible, as far as it
depends on you, live at peace with everyone" (Romans 12:18).
One of the beautiful names of God in Islam
is "the Peace" (Al-Hashr 59:23) and His path is described as
"the path of peace" (Al-Ma'idah 5:16). Muslims are invited
in the Qur'an to "enter into peace" and to avoid war, which
is depicted as a Satanic endeavor: [O ye who believe! Enter into
peace whole-heartedly; and follow not the footsteps of Satan; for he
is to you an avowed enemy] (Al-Baqarah 2:208).
Muslims are forbidden from waging war
except for the aforementioned reasons: [If they leave you alone,
refrain from fighting you, and offer you peace, then God gives you no
excuse to fight them] (An-Nisaa' 4:90). Muslims also have no
option but to accept peace whenever the door to it is open, even when
their enemy is not honest in his peaceful inclination: [If the
enemies incline towards peace, you must also incline towards peace,
and trust in Allah: for He is the One who hears and knows all things.
Should they intend to deceive you, then surely Allah is sufficient for
you] (Al-anfal 8:61–62).
Foundations of Holy
Peace
The way to holy peace is always open, and
the three monotheistic faiths provide solid foundations for it. But
holy peace requires a commitment to justice, honesty, and wisdom. It
also requires a better interpretation of religious texts, by reading
these texts within the context of God's grace, mercy, and benevolence.
|
The way to holy peace is always open,
and the three monotheistic faiths provide solid foundations
for it. |
Justice is the foundation of holy peace.
The Qur'an teaches that establishing justice is the goal of all
messages and messengers of God: [We sent aforetime our messengers
with Clear Signs and sent down with them the Book and the Balance of
Right and Wrong that humans may stand forth in justice] (Al-Hadid
57:25). Oppressors are always asking for "peace" and seeking
"stability," but what they want is submission to their
wrongdoings, the "peace of the graveyard" as one European
philosopher rightly called it.
Honesty is another foundation of holy
peace. Honesty means avoiding self-righteousness and
self-justification. I was profoundly moved by the graphic description
of the Holocaust atrocities in the Night of the great American
Jewish novelist and Holocaust survivor Elie Wiesel, and how he and his
father passed through a terrifying process that degrades human life
and dignity. But I was not impressed by the tone of self-righteousness
and self-justification in Wiesel's Dawn, namely when he says
"The commandment thou shalt not kill was given from the
summit of one of the mountains here in Palestine, and we were the only
ones to obey it. But that all over … in the days and weeks and
months to come, you will have only one purpose: to kill those who have
made us killers" (144).
Every Jew, Christian, and Muslim can claim
some true and imagined virtues of the past for his or her people.
However, building a holy peace for the future needs everyone to avoid
using the past atrocities as a moral justification for the present
aggression, occupation, and oppression. Moreover, the Palestinians of
today are evidently not responsible for the wrongdoings of the Germans
of yesterday.
Wisdom is the third foundation of holy
peace. The definition of wisdom in the Arabic language is
"putting everything in the right place." Wisdom is a
combination of morality and practicality. Some chronic conflicts
between individuals and nations are difficult to solve on the basis of
justice only. Justice is sometimes too late or too costly. But these
conflicts can be solved through wisdom. The goal of conflict
resolution based on wisdom is to save the future, not to avenge the
past. Since wisdom is a moral process, not a legal one, some level of
compassion and forgiveness is necessary to reach a wise solution.
A sound interpretation of the holy texts is
another challenge to the holy peace. Religion is a complex phenomenon
and can be used as a practical guide for peacemaking and an effective
tool for inciting war as well. The intensity of religious texts, and
the ease of interpreting them in very different — even contradictory
— ways, adds to the complexity of this issue. Because I read the
Qur'an differently from some other Muslims, I understand why the
pacifist Neturei Karta interprets the Torah differently from the
belligerent Yesha Rabbinical Council, and why the pacifist Quakers
read the Gospel differently from the apocalyptic Southern Baptists.
Holy peace is the way to discover our
common humanity. But it requires a high level of intellectual courage,
moral honesty, and a strong desire for forgiveness and reconciliation.
A good place to start is to appreciate what the Other has and be
honest about one's shortcomings and wrongdoings. No doubt that
"it is distressing to examine the sins of one's own culture"
(Armstrong xvi), but this painful self-examination is our only way to
holy peace in today's world of violence and mistrust.
Works Cited
-
Armstrong, Karen.
Holy War: The Crusades and Their Impact on Today's World.
Anchor, 2001.
-
Wiesel, Elie. The
Night Trilogy. Hill & Wang, 1987.
