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Astronomy
practiced in ancient civilizations was associated with astrology
and fortune telling. This association cast shades of doubt on the
practice in the minds of early Muslims. However, with the
establishment of the Islamic civilization, which rejected
astrology and fortune telling as contradictory to Islamic beliefs,
astronomy was separated and recognized as a discipline based on
scientific principles. This separation was not accidental: it was
based on scientific experiments, analogy and deduction, which
Muslims applied in order to meet their need for determining the qiblah
(direction of Mecca) and prayer times. All major mosques
accordingly appointed astronomers, who used instruments invented
by Muslims.
In
ancient civilizations, astronomy was shrouded in mystery, but
during the Abbasid period, particularly during the caliphate of
Haroon Ar-Rashid, this science gained a special status; this
period witnessed the unprecedented construction of large
observatories with permanent structures that housed huge,
carefully crafted instruments. A sizable number of astronomers
were associated with these observatories, which were looked after
by the state.
According
to Ayden Sayali, an outstanding Turkish researcher who studied
astronomical observatories, Islam gave rise to an environment that
supported the institutionalization of observatories by creating
conditions that were conducive to their establishment and
development. Astronomy enjoyed a special status in the Muslim
world, and Muslims were keenly interested in direct observation,
accurate measurement and mathematical theories. Muslims scholars
were inclined to specialization and had empirical tendencies.
Astronomers crafted larger instruments and preferred to work in
teams.
Observatories
during the Al-Ma’moon era were used for specific research
programs. The foremost objective of the astronomers who worked at
these early observatories was to draw up astronomical tables based
on recent observations of the sun and the moon. Apart from the
limitations of these programs, the management and financing
methods used at these observatories were somewhat undeveloped.
Because of the limited tasks assigned to Ma’moon’s
observatories set up in Ash-Shimasia and Qasioon, they cannot be
compared with the more modernized observatories that were later
established in the Muslim world.
The
more developed Islamic observatories, which were administratively
more organized, were built 1-½ centuries after Al-Ma’moon. When
the Sharaf Ad-Dawlah Observatory was established, a director was
appointed to manage it, and the observation program was broadened
to include all planets. It is believed that this program was
implemented in two stages, as there is evidence indicating that
early observations were limited to fast-moving planets along with
the sun and the moon.
The
primary objective of this observatory was to draw up new
astronomical tables of all the planets based on the most recent
observations. Owing to the advancement in this field, there was an
inclination towards making instruments that increased in size over
time and for appointing efficient specialized staff. The
development of observatories strengthened the belief that it was
the caliphs and kings who were originally behind the establishment
of observatories as state institutions.
The
work achieved at the observatory built by the Seljuk Sultan Malik
Shah in Baghdad marked a new phase in observation development.
There is not much information available about the work done at
this observatory, but it remained in service for over 20 years, a
relatively long period compared to other observatories. However,
astronomers at the time felt that a period of at least 30 years
was required to complete any astronomical achievement.
The
Marageh Observatory
This
observatory, considered one of the most important observatories in
Islamic history, was built in the seventh century AH (after
Hijrah), making this century accordingly the most important era in
the history of Islamic observatories. This observatory, the ruins
of which can still be seen today, was built outside the city of
Marageh, close to the city of Tabriz in Iran. The observatory was
built by Holako’s brother, Manjo, who was interested in
mathematics and astronomy. He entrusted Jamal Ad-Din Bin Muhammad
Bin Az-Zazidi Al-Bukhari with the establishment of this
observatory and sought the assistance of a large number of
scientists, such as Nasr Ad-Din At-Tusi, Ali Bin Umar Al-Ghazwini,
Muayid Ad-Din Al-‘Ardi, Fakhr Ad-Din Al-Maraghi, and Muhiyd-Din
Al-Maghribi.
The
Marageh Observatory is considered the first observatory to utilize
an endowment fund that was set up by Muslims, through land and
property, to ensure the continuous running of the observatory,
which remained in operation throughout the rule of seven
consecutive sultans who maintained it until 1316 AH.
This
observatory was also an important learning center for students who
studied astronomy and learned how to operate astronomical
instruments. It also had a large library that contained thousands
of manuscripts on various disciplines.
The
Samarkand Observatory
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Only part of the sextant and the foundation of the Ulugh Beg Observatory in Samarkand have been preserved
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This
observatory was established in Sarmarkand by Ulugh Beg, the
grandson of Tamerlane (Timur the Lame). The location of this
observatory was discovered in 1908, when Russian archaeologist
Viatken discovered an endowment document that stated the
observatory’s exact location. While working at the excavation
site, he found one of the most important astronomical instruments
used at the observatory: a large arch that had been used to
determine midday.
The
yard of this 21-metre-high observatory mounted a hill with a rocky
foot. The area of the hilltop was 170m (north-south) by 85m
(east-west). The garden as well as the staff residences that
surrounded the observatory’s main building are indicative of its
grandeur. The archaeological findings also showed that the
building was cylindrical in shape, with an elaborate,
well-designed interior.
Viatken
was of the opinion that the destruction of the observatory was not
caused by natural elements and that it could have partially
resulted from the removal of its marble slabs, which were used in
the construction of other buildings. Using the dome of the
observatory, astronomers developed the Ulugh Beg Tables, which are
considered one of the most accurate astronomical tables in the
world. The dome had inscriptions that marked the degrees, minutes,
seconds, and tenths of a second of the epicycles, the seven
planets, and the fixed stars, as well as the earth and its
regions, mountains, and deserts. Among the astronomers who worked
at this observatory was Ghiyath Ad-Din Al-Khashi, who excelled in
mechanical modeling of celestial movement.
*
Khalid Azab is an Egyptian freelance journalist and the
communications officer of Bibliotheca Alexandrina
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