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The
moon is the earth’s dark satellite, visible only by reflecting
the light of the sun. The visible area of the moon changes daily
according to the angle formed by line between the sun, the earth
and the moon, which results in the cycle of lunar phases.
The
Islamic calendar is based on this natural phenomenon, which is
used to determine the beginning of each lunar month in compliance
with the Qur’an (2:189), “They ask thee about the new moons.
Say, ‘they are but signs to mark fixed points of time for people
[to manage their affairs], and [to identify the time of]
hajj.’” Of particular concern to Muslims are the beginnings of
the fasting month of Ramadan and the month of hajj, the pilgrimage
season. The first day of the lunar month is identified by the
sighting of the waxing crescent, after sunset on the twenty-ninth
or the thirtieth day of the foregoing month.
Everywhere
in the Muslim world, sighting the waxing crescent is important. In
addition to setting the calendar, it also determines the dates of
important religious occasions. But sighting the crescent has
always been a controversial issue in the Islamic world. In some
places, it can be spotted easily whereas in others it may not be.
There have been incidents of inaccurate sighting reports. Such
incongruities call for more efforts on the part of Muslim
astronomers to put an end to differences in this regard.
The
moon, like the planets, has a slightly elliptical orbit. To
determine its apparent position, particularly as a waxing
crescent, several measurements have to be made including its
distance from the sun, its position in relation to a specific
observer on earth, and the exact time of its rising and setting.
Detailed
tabular calculations of the motion of the moon were produced in
the nineteenth century by the British-born American mathematician
and astronomer, Ernest William Brown. These tables were later
improved by twentieth century astronomers who developed equations
to determine the exact position of the moon.
Muslim
astronomers, proceeding from Kepler’s laws, have developed
computer software to identify the position of the earth in its
orbital movement round the sun. The point is to determine
accurately the time of sunset and, consequently, the exact
position of the crescent using the equations derived from
Brown’s lunar tables.
Muslim
astronomers known for their work on calculating the lunar months
include, most notably, Al-Battani (850-929), Al-Bayrouni
(973-1048) and Nassir al-Din Al-Tousi (1258-1274). In the
nineteenth century, an Egyptian army general, Mohamed Mokhtar
Pasha (1846-1897), produced a valuable work on tabular
correlations of the Muslim calendar, the Gregorian calendar and
the ancient Middle Eastern luni-solar system of time reckoning.
The tables cover the Muslim calendar from years 1 through 1500 and
the matching dates under the other two systems.
According
to Islamic Shari’a, to establish the beginning of the new lunar
month, the crescent must be sighted by the naked eye under
specific conditions. The sighting may, however, be influenced by a
number of factors including:
-
the life-length of the crescent, and the angle it forms with the
sun.
-
the height of the crescent relative to the horizon line at the
time of sunset.
-
the distance between the earth and the moon.
-
weather conditions and the degree of visibility.
The
first two factors are essential. The third is partially important,
since the distance between the earth and the moon changes by
approximately ± 4%, which has a negligible effect on visibility.
The fourth factor depends on variable local conditions at the time
of sighting the crescent.
The
following two conditions for sighting the crescent were set by the
Fiqh (Muslim jurisprudence) committee of the Islamic Conference
held in Istanbul in 1978:
-
The angle of the crescent’s position above the horizon at sunset
must be at least 5 arc degrees;
-
The angle formed by the moon and the sun must be at least 8 arc
degrees.
When
these two most essential conditions are fulfilled, the following
day shall be the first day of the new month.
The
motion of the moon can now be calculated with great precision, but
the beginning of every new lunar month remains a problem. Surveys
will have to be conducted in various places in the Islamic world
for several years to allow for sufficient statistical analysis. If
this is done, differences between Muslim countries in marking
religious occasions may be finally overcome.
Whenever
faced with two or more options, Prophet Muhammad (SAW) always
chose the one that was most accessible to his faithful followers.
The Qur’an (9:128) describes him as being extremely
commiserating and willing to spare the Muslims suffering and
hardship. The Qur’an (2:185) also tells us that God intends
every facility for the faithful, and does not will that they be
put to unaffordable tasks in life. Islamic Shari’a was therefore
satisfied with what was within the means of the Prophet’s
companions. This, however, does not mean that recently developed
scientific methods are to be excluded. This seemingly
contradiction of views calls for a closer look.
Early
Muslim scholars were almost unanimous on rejecting astronomical
methods during their time because, to them, there was no clear
line of demarcation between astronomy and astrology. However,
modern astronomy is different. It draws on spherical geometry and
celestial mechanics, two modern branches of science that enabled
man to land on the moon over a quarter of a century ago.
According
to Dr. Mostafa Al-Zarqa, a leading Muslim scholar, the debate on
the legitimacy of astronomical calculation is the greatest oddity
in modern jurisprudence, remaining hot at a time when man has
navigated the vast expanses of the universe, and landed on the
moon. At the present time, landing on the moon is no longer
considered a great feat.
All
relevant Hadith suggest that sighting the moon with the naked eye
was the only method available back then because the majority of
the Muslim population was illiterate. This by no means excluded
verifiable scientific methods that are capable of yielding
extremely accurate results. The naked-eye method is perfectly
acceptable when conditions of clear visibility are available.
Otherwise, there is no reason why scientific calculations should
not be relied upon. It is a shame that there is sometimes a
three-day discrepancy between Muslim countries in deciding the
beginning and the end of Ramadan.
The
position of early Muslim jurisprudents to reject guessing and
intuition as sources of reliable knowledge on this particular
issue is understandable. Astronomy was far from developed at that
early stage of Islam, Al-Zarqa explains.
The
Fatwa (Muslim religious opinion) House in Egypt has recently
decided that the naked-eye sighting method is the standard method
of establishing the beginning and the end of lunar months.
Astronomical measurements, the House says, may be used only as a
supportive tool, not as an alternative. But sighting reports that
contradict accurate measurements must be rejected because Islam
exhorts its followers to resort to the proper channels of learning
and knowledge.
Meanwhile,
with the approach of every new Ramadan, the same controversy
around deciding its first and last days is renewed. Muslim
countries continue to begin and end Ramadan on different days, and
to celebrate other important religious occasions on different days
because of a lack of coordination and standardization...
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