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History of Islam: Breathtaking
Diversity*
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Reviewed by Mona Naggar
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Mar.
8, 2006
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In her book Gudrun Krämer succeeds in casting light on events and circumstances in the history of Islam beyond the sphere of the political |
Gudrun
Krämer, Professor of Islamic Studies at the Free University in Berlin, has
written a history of Islam from the beginnings to the present day, from its
outer limits in Asia to its furthest Western outpost in Andalusia.
Only
300 pages long, Krämer's book "History of Islam" is lucid,
accessible, attractively written, and illuminated by copious illustrations and
maps. "Islam" is defined broadly, and Krämer's book examines
everything that contributes to the emergence of a religion over the course of
several centuries: the social and political circumstances, the cultural
influences, the impact of other faiths and worldviews.
Shared Histories
In the foreword, she announces her intention of focusing on the "shared
histories" of Islam, the exchanges and interactions that made it what it
is: "This can also cast light on the diversity and mutability of Islamic
ideas and ways of life, for these have not simply emerged inexorably from the
Koran, the Sunna, or (indeed) the Arabic peninsula."
And on that note, the author begins with a detailed description of the Arabic
peninsula at the end of the sixth century, 30 years after the birth of Mohammed
and around a decade before he experienced his revelation.
At that time, Mecca and Medina (then known as "Yathrib") were at the
periphery of contemporary cultural centres, though not totally cut off. The
population was made up of traders, peasants, craftsmen and nomads, and the
peninsula played host to a wide range of religious tendencies: apart from Jews,
"heathens", and various Christian groups, there were also faiths in
which monotheistic and pagan tendencies overlapped.
The Advent of Islam
In Mecca, three female divinities were worshipped as "Allah's
daughters", and it remains unclear whether Allah himself was actually the
chief God in this pantheon.
It was in this setting that Mohammed appeared with the revelation of the Koran,
preaching of one God, a Last Judgment and a Kingdom of Heaven. To what extent
was Islam an autochthonous development? How much influence did external factors
play?
These questions aren't easily answered, for as Gudrun Krämer points out,
only Muslim sources are available for the period. Nonetheless, one wishes the
author had supplied a deeper analysis of the content of the Koran itself, and
that she had examined in greater detail the development of the religious rites.
She does tell us that the teachings and practice of Islam were not yet strictly
laid down in the early decades, that everything was in a state of flux; but,
sadly, she doesn't elaborate any further. Similar considerations apply to her
discussion of Hadith.
In the 8th and 9th centuries, this collection of the Prophet's words and deeds
expanded greatly. We learn that the Hadith were often used to legitimise the
most diverse interpretations, and that many of them were forgeries; but here
too, it would have been good to encounter more detail and more context.
In the decades following Mohammed's death (in 632), the young Islamic community
was racked by conflicts concerning the succession to the Prophet. This section
of the book is positively gripping.
During the period in question, the importance of social and economic factors was
particularly stark; these included clan membership and the division of the rich
spoils after successful wars of conquest against the Byzantines and the Persian
Sassanid dynasty. Such inner-Islamic clashes sowed the seeds for the later
emergence of the Sunnis, Shiites and Kharijites.
The Zenith of Islamic Civilisation
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Gudrun Krämer has lectured at universities in Berlin,
Cairo, Bologna, Paris and Indonesia |
Despite
these internal conflicts (which never really ceased), Islam continued to expand
apace. Under the Caliph Hisham bin Abdul Malik (724-742), the Umayyad dynasty
ruled the largest empire the world had ever seen.
It
provided ideal conditions for interactions, cross-pollinations and various forms
of coexistence, out of which, says Krämer, a new and recognisably
Arabic-Islamic culture emerged. This process of intermingling and exchange
continued under the Abbasid dynasty that followed (750-1258) – the zenith or
heyday of Islamic civilisation.
In the centuries that followed, Islam carried on developing independently, and
the history of this period is rich in diversity. Its protagonists include the
descendants of the Mongols, the Savafids of Iran, the Ottomans, and the Mogul
potentates of India.
Gudrun Krämer succeeds in casting light on events and circumstances beyond
the sphere of the political; even when examining the political development of
the various dynasties, she always finds time to look at social structures,
economic conditions and the position of non-Muslims.
The book's main emphasis is undoubtedly on the period up to the end of the 18th
century. Only in broad brushstrokes does the author deal with Europe's expansion
into the Muslim sphere of influence, the emergence of nation-states, or
tendencies in contemporary Islam.
Yet Gudrun Krämer does conclude by showing the increasingly conservative
tendency that has characterised many Islamic countries since the 1980s. She also
traces the discussions that have been dominated by Islamist themes, such as the
unity of state and religion – an Islamist utopia that has never been
manifested in the real world.
Gudrun Krämer's book makes one thing very clear: throughout its long
history, Islam has always been too multifaceted and adaptable to be reduced to
the dreams of Islamist zealots.
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This article was originally published on www.qantara.de.
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